Temples of Orissa
Orissa was one a stronghold of Buddhism and Jainism. The mighty Emperor Asoka, after the conquest of Kalinga, proclaimed Buddhism from the inscription of Dhaluli (5 miles from Bhuvaneswar) and issue dedicts for the just governance of the State from the rock edict of Jaugada in Gunjam Distric. King Kharavela (Circa 450 B.C.) who had his capital at Sisupalgarh near Bhuvaneswar, and who constructed some of the famous caves on the hills of Khandagiri and Udayagiri, also near Bhuvaneswar, for the Jain monks, established Jainism in this country. The hills are honeycombed with caves or cells, of which 44 have been found so far in Udayagiri and 21 in Khandagiri. Many of them appear to have been excavated in the 4th or 5th century B.C. as is evident from the Hathigumpha inscription. In the words of Fergusson, "The picturesqueness of their forms, the character of their sculptures and architectural details, combined with their antiquity, render them one of the mose deserving of a careful survey."
The Hindu revival began from the 7th to 13th century A.D. with the performance of a yagnaby Yayati Kesari who requisitioned the help of 10,000 Brahmins from Kanyakubja and performed the sacred rite at the modern Jazipur, formerly known as yagnapur, on the banks of the Vaitarini. This great and powerful monarch gave a death below to Buddhism by constructing innumerable Saivate temples at Jaipur which was the capital of Kalinga. Next his attention centred round Bhuvaneswar, the then stronghold of Jainism, and he constructed 9999 Saivite temples, as he could lavishly spend the accumpulated wealth of his prosperous empire. The first temples to raise their heads were perhaps the temples of Parasurameswara and Mukteswara at Bhuvaneswar. The architecture of these two temples is more than enough to prove that the Kesari architecture was by far the best of the contemporary architectural style of India. The temple of Mukteswar worked in red sandstone which dazzles the eye of countless observers, is one of the finest examples of Hindu architecture. "The grandeur of this temple, the fine needle- work on stone, and its attractive imposition, all prove eloquently what a masterity hand the Hindu architects of Kalinga possessed in those days. It is the lates specimen of the medieval temples of Orissa. The ‘Torana’ stands free of the inner enclosure wall, just in front of the only opening in it. The capitals support the arch, which is circular and built in sectionson the principle of the true overlapping Indian arch," The temple of Mukteswara may be styled the epitome of Orissan architecture, showing all that is best in it. "It may be called a dream in sandstone."
The superhuman efforts of Emperor Yayati Kesari, his tireless labour and great determination, chaged Bhuvaneswar into a city of temples and Gods, a city which was destined to become the greatest centre of saivism in India since then. The culminating point of his creative genius seems to have been reached when he laid the foundation of the great temple of Lingaraj at Bhuvaneswar. The imposing and unique construction could nod be completed by Yayati Kesari, but his successor Lalitendra Kesari completed the construction of Lingaraj temple. "The massive and imposing structure of the teple, along with the finest type of needle decoration, had endowed the monument with a masculine grandeur and freminine grace. The temple of Lingaraj is unquestionably the greatest Hindu monument that exists till today, unrivalled for its body build and beauty, for its sculptural and decorative art, and for the surpeb engineering skill with which the temple had been built to defy the ravaging effects of time. Over the surface of the stone the masterbuilders of that age had written down the strength, wealthm culture and splendour of their imperial patrons."
The Ananta Vasudeva temple with a tank in front, Bindusagar, was construced by Bhavadeva. It is the only vaishnavite temple at Bhuvaneswar. Dedicated to the divine brothers Krishna and Balaram. This temple consists of Vimana, Jaganmohan, Natamandira and Bogamandapa. The entire group in enclosed in a compound wall. Being a Vaishnava temple, the principal niches on the four sides contain Vaishnava images. In the Natamandira there is a small pillar surmounted by a figure of Garuda.
The temple of Brahmeswara lies east of the temple of Raja Rani, in the fields. According to the inscription, Kalavati, the mother of Udyot Kesari, built the temple. The temple of Brahmeswara includes four small temples at the four corners and is surrounded by a stone compund wall.
The Vittal Deval and Raja Rani are two examples of exotic types. The Vital Deval adopted an example of the Gopuram of the Dravidian style; the spire bears resemblance to those of Conheevaram, Madura and Rameswaram. The Raja Rani temple seems to have been construced in the Indo- Aryan style. The contour of the Sikhara is different from those of Parasurameswara and Lingaraj. Here the Sikhara is a gradually inclined curve, but this outline is broken by sharp projections in the shaped of numerous miniature Sikharas, which are added to the main Sikhara in regular rows for its ornamentation in relief. It consists of a Vimana and a Jaganmohan. While the exterior of the Vimana is covered with beautiful human figures and other decorative motifs, that of the Jaganmohan is severely plain. The Raja Rani is famous for the beauty of its decorative art.
The late Manmohan Chakravarti proved definitely that the temple of Jagannath at Puri was built before the close of the 11th century and not 12th century as Fergusson and other writers had supposed. Ananta varma Choda Ganga began the great temple and finished the Vimana, but the Jagamohan was left unfinished and was finished by his illustrious successor Anangabhima I. The commonplace appearance of the Sikhara of the Jagannath temple is entirely due to the modification of the outline which tends more to the nagara (North Indian) style, lacking however the dignity of the latter on account of the smooth unbroked surface of the facades of the Sikhara. Very little sculptural decoration is to be seen on the sacred and stupendous edifice. The plastering of the emple has marred thedecorative effect.
The Natamandira and Bhogamandapa are later additions. The night of the vimana of the Jagannath temple is 214 ft. 8 inches. The Bhogamandapa was added, according to the chronicles, by Purishottama Deva (1435- 97).
After the temple of Jagannath, the only other temple of orissa, the history of which is known, is the Surya Deval at Konark dedicated to the Sun God, on the banks of the Chandrabhaga, facing the sea. This temple marks the change of the Sun’s travel in the horizon from Uttarayana to Dakshinayana when the Sun’s rays fall on the temple. The whole temple is conceived in the form of a Ratha or Chariot wiht12 pairs of wheels. The Vimana collapsed prior to the British conquest of Orissa. Narasimbha Deva (1238- 1264), one of the most powerful monarchs of the Ganga Dynasty, built the great temple of Konarak. It is said that Narasimha I was cured of leprosy and dedicated this temple to the Sun- God out of gratitude. The Sikhara was still standing in 1837; but the whole of the Vimana has now disapperared with the exception of the plinth moulding. In plan the arrangement of the shrine seems to have been the same as in the temples of Lingaraj and Jagannath. It consisted of a Vimana and a Jaganmohan. On the three sides of the Vimana there are three structures, with staircases leading to the terraces in front of them. The northern niche contains a standing figure of the Sun on hose- back, a very rare example of Indian Iconography. The southern niche contains a standing figure of the Sun in the usual manner. The western niche also conatins a similar figure of a God.
The temple of Konarak is the embodiment of the supreme artistic, architectural, sculptural and engineering skill that the Orissans possessed in those days. Twelve hundred architects working for 12 long years built the temple. The existing remains resemble the work of Gods. Here on the walls of Konarak has been displayed a rare craftsmanship by the Orissa sculptors and artists, and here is to be found the crowning glory or Orissan architects. "From all points of view, for artistic splendour. Dignified structures, jewellery- like ornamentation, delicacy of tratement and architectural composition, Konarak is a type by itself."
"The myths and legends, the poetic dreams of inspired sages, the conventional and realistic portraiture of human life in all its phases, the astronomical and astrological speculations and approximations, the observations of natural objects in plant and animal life, the closestudy of human anatomy in its creative virility, and finally the knowledge of mathematics and gemometry, statistics and dynamics, and the principles of architecture and sculpture which they reveal to the eye and the mind of the observer, derive from traditional sources which are deeply imbedded int eh haeavy past."
"The entire edifice presents an integral conception of harmonious unity. The most amazing distinction of Konarak lies in the fact that it is the embodiment of an integral conception, and presents the metaphysical and the physical in as many aspects as the dreamer- poet who conceived the idea could visualize. Judging by the faithful consistency of every detail of the pageant of life chiseled all over the temple, it appears that the architect- designer, while bringing into being the Sun’s legendary Chariot, cast a Sun’s- eye glance over the globe and carved our of huge rocks whatever in his imagination the Sun, while driving his Chariot athwart the Earth, would see."
"The Chariot is drawn by seven richly caparisoned horses, three on one and four on the other side. They represent the seven fleeting days of the week. In the conventional image of the Sun- Gof, the seven horses are driven by Aruna (the Dawn), and while the middle team of three horses faces straight ahead, the two pairs on either side face the past and the future in exquisitely graduated degrees. The Chariot itself stands on twelve pairs of wheels, symbolising the twelve months of the year. Each wheel has eight emblematic spokes, the eight ‘pahars’ or divisions of the day and night. On each spoke there appear figures which may have astronomical or astrological significance. These symbolic figures appear to be in motion, for as one moves from one wheel to the other, one finds these figures moving up or down in a circular moton, giving an impression of the Chariot being in its diurnal or maybe, in monthly motion through the Zodiacal mansions. The Chariot carries the Deval and the Jagannmohan. Inproportion to the surviving part of the temple, the tower over the sanctuary must have been nearly 228 feet high, and apparently it crumbled under its own weight a long time ago. Every inch of the exterior of the temple is unbelievably rich in sculpture. From the base to the top one witnesses terraced galleries of animal and plant life; hunting and forest scenes; and aimost all the phases of human life depicted, up and down, across and around the walls and architectural ornaments of the building. The boldness and vigour, the plasticity and the dynamic sweep which one seesin all the carvings, provide proof of the highest order of artistic conception and execution. The sense of perspective of the maste- sculptors who have adorned the temple with statuesque figures of immense proportions, probably 60 to 70 feet above the ground level is perfect; and their study if human anatomy in complex movements beyond praise. The intricate traceries which have been worked out with the skill of the jewelers are exquisite. It is all a phantasy and an allegorical rhapsody in stone." (These quotations are taken from the article on "The Sun- God’s Temple at Konark’ by Mr. M. Asaf Ali, Ex- Governor of Orissa.).
Several writers on Indian architecture, especially of temple construction, say that the temple construction of Orissa is wholly different from that of the North Indian, Western and Dravidian styles of temple archtecture. No doubt Orissa imblibed some to the features of the Northern and Southern types of architecture, but it has evolved its own type of architecture totally different from them. The halls that are added to the Vimana, under the names of Jaganmohan, Bhogamantap and Natamandira, are the peculiar and distinctive features of the Orissan type of architecture. These features are wholly absent in other types of temple construction in the North, Suth and the West.
If one carefully surveys the great temples of Jagannath at puri, Lingaraj at Bhuvaneswer, and Konark, one sees invariably the Navagraha slabs, on which the 9 planets are carved in relief, kept in some prominent place of the temple, thus suggesting that the inner shrine where the supreme Deity is enthroned is the centre of the Universe, from which the important planetary influences emanate. Each important graha’ aspects its own house, the 7th house, from where it is situated. Guru, Mars and Saturn have extra aspects; Guru’s vision falls on the 5th and 9th house besies the 7th house; Mars aspects the 4th and 8th house besides the 7th house; Saturn aspects the 3rd and 10th house besides the 7th houses. The total aspects of the Navagrahas seem to be 24 in number. If wer carefully examine the plinth area of the Jagannath temple at Puri and the Lingaraj temple at Bhuvaneswar there are angular projection at the base of the Vimana which clearly suggest the aspects of the planetary system. This suggestion indivative of the inter- relation of the Navagrahas with the Universe is the unique, crowing and distinctive feature of Orissan architectue \. In no other type of archtecture do we find the correlation of the planetary system with the supreme Deity who is enshrined on the throne of the Vimana whose tower generally ends in a spire. This pyramidal construction of the Vimana reaching colossal heights emphasizes the grandeur and aesthetic value of the temple which is visible from somw miles. Great devotees mutter therir prayers, looking at the Amalaka or Chakra or Trisula of these temples both at day- dawn and at twilight time.
The Kalinga of mixed fortunes was the seat of distinguished dynasties and had a history that spanned over a millennium. King Asoka won a major victory there against the local ruler. According to legend, the sight of the bloodshed he had caused, affected Asoka so dedply that he converted to the peace promoting religion of Buddhism. He spent the rest of his life doing good deeds rather than conquering territory. Remowned sovereigns notwithstanding, Kalinga is famous all over the world today for its rich collection of religious architecture built between the mid-seventh and 12th centuries AD.
Kaliga, Orissa, or Utkala as it was known in the 10th century, at the pinnacle of its building activity, presents in its three major temple sites the most highly evolved culmination point of centuries of the Nagara tradition. Even the novitiate has heard of the magnificent shrines at the temple towns of Bhubaneshwar and puri and the Black Pagoda on the seashore at Konark. The existing religious architecture in this region was mostly constructed by the Kesari dynasty and some temple were built by the Gangas who succeeded them. They are elegant of form, intricate of sculpture and posses loftier Shikhara-s than any other in India. In fact, to create such high spires was the aim of the medieval architects responsible for the construction of the group.
As far as Orissan temple heritage goes, contemporary documentation has yielded sociologically valuable and intriguing facts not only about the processes involved in the financing, Planning and construction of temples and the infrastructure needed for such large-scale projects, but also insights into the religious traditions that moulded their architects and guided their work.
While the Orissan temples follow a more or less typical pattern, their distinctiveness comes from individual variation. They were square in plan with a pyramidal roof, and consisted basically of two apartments, the garba grha or deul as it is called here and the antarala (called jagmohan or porch in this region). Often additions were made to this outline in the form of one or two mandapa-s. Interiors tended to be plain, apart from carved ceiling designs and images in the sanctum sanctorum,but the intricacy and extent of embellishment in the exteriors increased as time went by. The style of sculpture was detailed and enthusiastic but without the florid exaggeration seen in southern India. The capital of the modern state of Orissa, Bhubaneshwar, possesses some of the oldest architecture in the region. Indeed, it is one of India’s foremost temple towns, bustling and dirty, home to hundreds of temples of various ages and crowded with devotees and tourists. It is hard to believe that once upon a time all that had existed here was, perhaps, a thick forest of mango trees.
Siva was discouraged. The holy city of Varanasi was being defiled by infidels and the god felt it was time to leave that temporal abode in search of a new one. So, taking the advice of a wise sage, he chose a dense grove of a mango, which happened to be already sacred to Vishnu. Siva had to request the other god for permission to settle there. When he did so, Vishnu agreed but only on the condition that Siva never return to Varanasi. This the god would not agree to until Vishnu reassured him that the new site had every advantage that his old home possessed.
And so it came to be that Vishnu took over as his residence, the tirtha of Varanasi while Siva in the form of a linga stayed in the Orissan forest. This wood, eons later, grew into the town of Bhubaneshwar (Lord of the World), a sacred city devoted to Siva worship. According to another legend, the city was established by the great ruler, Yayati, founder of the kesari dynasty, who made Bhubaneshwar a city of ‘powerful religions.’ Its sacred pool, the Bindu Sagar, which measures over 1,200 by 650 feet, according to local myth, contains water from every holy water body in the country and was once encircled by 7,000 shrines. To day there are fewer than 500. In the middle of the tank is a small island with a pavilion dedicated to Shankara, where, once a year, his image is immersed in the holy water.
The traveler might be hard put to make a choice among the scores or religious sites worth visiting in the temple town of Bhubaneshwar. The downside of traveling in a many splendoured country like India is that some places of interest will always be overlooked for lack of time. Certainly the shrines which should not be missed in this city include the great Lingaraja, the smaller Parsurameshwar and Vaitul Deul, the Rajarani, and the Mikteshwar, as well as the brahmanical sandstone caves of the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Hills, located not far from the urban centre.
The Hindu revival began from the 7th to 13th century A.D. with the performance of a yagnaby Yayati Kesari who requisitioned the help of 10,000 Brahmins from Kanyakubja and performed the sacred rite at the modern Jazipur, formerly known as yagnapur, on the banks of the Vaitarini. This great and powerful monarch gave a death below to Buddhism by constructing innumerable Saivate temples at Jaipur which was the capital of Kalinga. Next his attention centred round Bhuvaneswar, the then stronghold of Jainism, and he constructed 9999 Saivite temples, as he could lavishly spend the accumpulated wealth of his prosperous empire. The first temples to raise their heads were perhaps the temples of Parasurameswara and Mukteswara at Bhuvaneswar. The architecture of these two temples is more than enough to prove that the Kesari architecture was by far the best of the contemporary architectural style of India. The temple of Mukteswar worked in red sandstone which dazzles the eye of countless observers, is one of the finest examples of Hindu architecture. "The grandeur of this temple, the fine needle- work on stone, and its attractive imposition, all prove eloquently what a masterity hand the Hindu architects of Kalinga possessed in those days. It is the lates specimen of the medieval temples of Orissa. The ‘Torana’ stands free of the inner enclosure wall, just in front of the only opening in it. The capitals support the arch, which is circular and built in sectionson the principle of the true overlapping Indian arch," The temple of Mukteswara may be styled the epitome of Orissan architecture, showing all that is best in it. "It may be called a dream in sandstone."
The superhuman efforts of Emperor Yayati Kesari, his tireless labour and great determination, chaged Bhuvaneswar into a city of temples and Gods, a city which was destined to become the greatest centre of saivism in India since then. The culminating point of his creative genius seems to have been reached when he laid the foundation of the great temple of Lingaraj at Bhuvaneswar. The imposing and unique construction could nod be completed by Yayati Kesari, but his successor Lalitendra Kesari completed the construction of Lingaraj temple. "The massive and imposing structure of the teple, along with the finest type of needle decoration, had endowed the monument with a masculine grandeur and freminine grace. The temple of Lingaraj is unquestionably the greatest Hindu monument that exists till today, unrivalled for its body build and beauty, for its sculptural and decorative art, and for the surpeb engineering skill with which the temple had been built to defy the ravaging effects of time. Over the surface of the stone the masterbuilders of that age had written down the strength, wealthm culture and splendour of their imperial patrons."
The Ananta Vasudeva temple with a tank in front, Bindusagar, was construced by Bhavadeva. It is the only vaishnavite temple at Bhuvaneswar. Dedicated to the divine brothers Krishna and Balaram. This temple consists of Vimana, Jaganmohan, Natamandira and Bogamandapa. The entire group in enclosed in a compound wall. Being a Vaishnava temple, the principal niches on the four sides contain Vaishnava images. In the Natamandira there is a small pillar surmounted by a figure of Garuda.
The temple of Brahmeswara lies east of the temple of Raja Rani, in the fields. According to the inscription, Kalavati, the mother of Udyot Kesari, built the temple. The temple of Brahmeswara includes four small temples at the four corners and is surrounded by a stone compund wall.
The Vittal Deval and Raja Rani are two examples of exotic types. The Vital Deval adopted an example of the Gopuram of the Dravidian style; the spire bears resemblance to those of Conheevaram, Madura and Rameswaram. The Raja Rani temple seems to have been construced in the Indo- Aryan style. The contour of the Sikhara is different from those of Parasurameswara and Lingaraj. Here the Sikhara is a gradually inclined curve, but this outline is broken by sharp projections in the shaped of numerous miniature Sikharas, which are added to the main Sikhara in regular rows for its ornamentation in relief. It consists of a Vimana and a Jaganmohan. While the exterior of the Vimana is covered with beautiful human figures and other decorative motifs, that of the Jaganmohan is severely plain. The Raja Rani is famous for the beauty of its decorative art.
The late Manmohan Chakravarti proved definitely that the temple of Jagannath at Puri was built before the close of the 11th century and not 12th century as Fergusson and other writers had supposed. Ananta varma Choda Ganga began the great temple and finished the Vimana, but the Jagamohan was left unfinished and was finished by his illustrious successor Anangabhima I. The commonplace appearance of the Sikhara of the Jagannath temple is entirely due to the modification of the outline which tends more to the nagara (North Indian) style, lacking however the dignity of the latter on account of the smooth unbroked surface of the facades of the Sikhara. Very little sculptural decoration is to be seen on the sacred and stupendous edifice. The plastering of the emple has marred thedecorative effect.
The Natamandira and Bhogamandapa are later additions. The night of the vimana of the Jagannath temple is 214 ft. 8 inches. The Bhogamandapa was added, according to the chronicles, by Purishottama Deva (1435- 97).
After the temple of Jagannath, the only other temple of orissa, the history of which is known, is the Surya Deval at Konark dedicated to the Sun God, on the banks of the Chandrabhaga, facing the sea. This temple marks the change of the Sun’s travel in the horizon from Uttarayana to Dakshinayana when the Sun’s rays fall on the temple. The whole temple is conceived in the form of a Ratha or Chariot wiht12 pairs of wheels. The Vimana collapsed prior to the British conquest of Orissa. Narasimbha Deva (1238- 1264), one of the most powerful monarchs of the Ganga Dynasty, built the great temple of Konarak. It is said that Narasimha I was cured of leprosy and dedicated this temple to the Sun- God out of gratitude. The Sikhara was still standing in 1837; but the whole of the Vimana has now disapperared with the exception of the plinth moulding. In plan the arrangement of the shrine seems to have been the same as in the temples of Lingaraj and Jagannath. It consisted of a Vimana and a Jaganmohan. On the three sides of the Vimana there are three structures, with staircases leading to the terraces in front of them. The northern niche contains a standing figure of the Sun on hose- back, a very rare example of Indian Iconography. The southern niche contains a standing figure of the Sun in the usual manner. The western niche also conatins a similar figure of a God.
The temple of Konarak is the embodiment of the supreme artistic, architectural, sculptural and engineering skill that the Orissans possessed in those days. Twelve hundred architects working for 12 long years built the temple. The existing remains resemble the work of Gods. Here on the walls of Konarak has been displayed a rare craftsmanship by the Orissa sculptors and artists, and here is to be found the crowning glory or Orissan architects. "From all points of view, for artistic splendour. Dignified structures, jewellery- like ornamentation, delicacy of tratement and architectural composition, Konarak is a type by itself."
"The myths and legends, the poetic dreams of inspired sages, the conventional and realistic portraiture of human life in all its phases, the astronomical and astrological speculations and approximations, the observations of natural objects in plant and animal life, the closestudy of human anatomy in its creative virility, and finally the knowledge of mathematics and gemometry, statistics and dynamics, and the principles of architecture and sculpture which they reveal to the eye and the mind of the observer, derive from traditional sources which are deeply imbedded int eh haeavy past."
"The entire edifice presents an integral conception of harmonious unity. The most amazing distinction of Konarak lies in the fact that it is the embodiment of an integral conception, and presents the metaphysical and the physical in as many aspects as the dreamer- poet who conceived the idea could visualize. Judging by the faithful consistency of every detail of the pageant of life chiseled all over the temple, it appears that the architect- designer, while bringing into being the Sun’s legendary Chariot, cast a Sun’s- eye glance over the globe and carved our of huge rocks whatever in his imagination the Sun, while driving his Chariot athwart the Earth, would see."
"The Chariot is drawn by seven richly caparisoned horses, three on one and four on the other side. They represent the seven fleeting days of the week. In the conventional image of the Sun- Gof, the seven horses are driven by Aruna (the Dawn), and while the middle team of three horses faces straight ahead, the two pairs on either side face the past and the future in exquisitely graduated degrees. The Chariot itself stands on twelve pairs of wheels, symbolising the twelve months of the year. Each wheel has eight emblematic spokes, the eight ‘pahars’ or divisions of the day and night. On each spoke there appear figures which may have astronomical or astrological significance. These symbolic figures appear to be in motion, for as one moves from one wheel to the other, one finds these figures moving up or down in a circular moton, giving an impression of the Chariot being in its diurnal or maybe, in monthly motion through the Zodiacal mansions. The Chariot carries the Deval and the Jagannmohan. Inproportion to the surviving part of the temple, the tower over the sanctuary must have been nearly 228 feet high, and apparently it crumbled under its own weight a long time ago. Every inch of the exterior of the temple is unbelievably rich in sculpture. From the base to the top one witnesses terraced galleries of animal and plant life; hunting and forest scenes; and aimost all the phases of human life depicted, up and down, across and around the walls and architectural ornaments of the building. The boldness and vigour, the plasticity and the dynamic sweep which one seesin all the carvings, provide proof of the highest order of artistic conception and execution. The sense of perspective of the maste- sculptors who have adorned the temple with statuesque figures of immense proportions, probably 60 to 70 feet above the ground level is perfect; and their study if human anatomy in complex movements beyond praise. The intricate traceries which have been worked out with the skill of the jewelers are exquisite. It is all a phantasy and an allegorical rhapsody in stone." (These quotations are taken from the article on "The Sun- God’s Temple at Konark’ by Mr. M. Asaf Ali, Ex- Governor of Orissa.).
Several writers on Indian architecture, especially of temple construction, say that the temple construction of Orissa is wholly different from that of the North Indian, Western and Dravidian styles of temple archtecture. No doubt Orissa imblibed some to the features of the Northern and Southern types of architecture, but it has evolved its own type of architecture totally different from them. The halls that are added to the Vimana, under the names of Jaganmohan, Bhogamantap and Natamandira, are the peculiar and distinctive features of the Orissan type of architecture. These features are wholly absent in other types of temple construction in the North, Suth and the West.
If one carefully surveys the great temples of Jagannath at puri, Lingaraj at Bhuvaneswer, and Konark, one sees invariably the Navagraha slabs, on which the 9 planets are carved in relief, kept in some prominent place of the temple, thus suggesting that the inner shrine where the supreme Deity is enthroned is the centre of the Universe, from which the important planetary influences emanate. Each important graha’ aspects its own house, the 7th house, from where it is situated. Guru, Mars and Saturn have extra aspects; Guru’s vision falls on the 5th and 9th house besies the 7th house; Mars aspects the 4th and 8th house besides the 7th house; Saturn aspects the 3rd and 10th house besides the 7th houses. The total aspects of the Navagrahas seem to be 24 in number. If wer carefully examine the plinth area of the Jagannath temple at Puri and the Lingaraj temple at Bhuvaneswar there are angular projection at the base of the Vimana which clearly suggest the aspects of the planetary system. This suggestion indivative of the inter- relation of the Navagrahas with the Universe is the unique, crowing and distinctive feature of Orissan architectue \. In no other type of archtecture do we find the correlation of the planetary system with the supreme Deity who is enshrined on the throne of the Vimana whose tower generally ends in a spire. This pyramidal construction of the Vimana reaching colossal heights emphasizes the grandeur and aesthetic value of the temple which is visible from somw miles. Great devotees mutter therir prayers, looking at the Amalaka or Chakra or Trisula of these temples both at day- dawn and at twilight time.
The Kalinga of mixed fortunes was the seat of distinguished dynasties and had a history that spanned over a millennium. King Asoka won a major victory there against the local ruler. According to legend, the sight of the bloodshed he had caused, affected Asoka so dedply that he converted to the peace promoting religion of Buddhism. He spent the rest of his life doing good deeds rather than conquering territory. Remowned sovereigns notwithstanding, Kalinga is famous all over the world today for its rich collection of religious architecture built between the mid-seventh and 12th centuries AD.
Kaliga, Orissa, or Utkala as it was known in the 10th century, at the pinnacle of its building activity, presents in its three major temple sites the most highly evolved culmination point of centuries of the Nagara tradition. Even the novitiate has heard of the magnificent shrines at the temple towns of Bhubaneshwar and puri and the Black Pagoda on the seashore at Konark. The existing religious architecture in this region was mostly constructed by the Kesari dynasty and some temple were built by the Gangas who succeeded them. They are elegant of form, intricate of sculpture and posses loftier Shikhara-s than any other in India. In fact, to create such high spires was the aim of the medieval architects responsible for the construction of the group.
As far as Orissan temple heritage goes, contemporary documentation has yielded sociologically valuable and intriguing facts not only about the processes involved in the financing, Planning and construction of temples and the infrastructure needed for such large-scale projects, but also insights into the religious traditions that moulded their architects and guided their work.
While the Orissan temples follow a more or less typical pattern, their distinctiveness comes from individual variation. They were square in plan with a pyramidal roof, and consisted basically of two apartments, the garba grha or deul as it is called here and the antarala (called jagmohan or porch in this region). Often additions were made to this outline in the form of one or two mandapa-s. Interiors tended to be plain, apart from carved ceiling designs and images in the sanctum sanctorum,but the intricacy and extent of embellishment in the exteriors increased as time went by. The style of sculpture was detailed and enthusiastic but without the florid exaggeration seen in southern India. The capital of the modern state of Orissa, Bhubaneshwar, possesses some of the oldest architecture in the region. Indeed, it is one of India’s foremost temple towns, bustling and dirty, home to hundreds of temples of various ages and crowded with devotees and tourists. It is hard to believe that once upon a time all that had existed here was, perhaps, a thick forest of mango trees.
Siva was discouraged. The holy city of Varanasi was being defiled by infidels and the god felt it was time to leave that temporal abode in search of a new one. So, taking the advice of a wise sage, he chose a dense grove of a mango, which happened to be already sacred to Vishnu. Siva had to request the other god for permission to settle there. When he did so, Vishnu agreed but only on the condition that Siva never return to Varanasi. This the god would not agree to until Vishnu reassured him that the new site had every advantage that his old home possessed.
And so it came to be that Vishnu took over as his residence, the tirtha of Varanasi while Siva in the form of a linga stayed in the Orissan forest. This wood, eons later, grew into the town of Bhubaneshwar (Lord of the World), a sacred city devoted to Siva worship. According to another legend, the city was established by the great ruler, Yayati, founder of the kesari dynasty, who made Bhubaneshwar a city of ‘powerful religions.’ Its sacred pool, the Bindu Sagar, which measures over 1,200 by 650 feet, according to local myth, contains water from every holy water body in the country and was once encircled by 7,000 shrines. To day there are fewer than 500. In the middle of the tank is a small island with a pavilion dedicated to Shankara, where, once a year, his image is immersed in the holy water.
The traveler might be hard put to make a choice among the scores or religious sites worth visiting in the temple town of Bhubaneshwar. The downside of traveling in a many splendoured country like India is that some places of interest will always be overlooked for lack of time. Certainly the shrines which should not be missed in this city include the great Lingaraja, the smaller Parsurameshwar and Vaitul Deul, the Rajarani, and the Mikteshwar, as well as the brahmanical sandstone caves of the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Hills, located not far from the urban centre.
