Temples of Deccan – The Melting Pot
Mumbai-Elephanta; Ellora-Kailashnath; Pandharpur- Vithoba, Taak Pithya; Aihole- Lad Khan, Durga; Pattadakal- Virupaksha; Hampi- Hazara Rama; Somnathapur- henna Keshava
The vast expense of land known as the Deccan (meaning southern), actually contains the geographical centre of India. It stretches over four states; Maharashtra, Goa, the western part of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, and separates north India from the south. Classifying temples is a complex and, especially in the case of the Deccan, rather unjust thing to do. The Deccan includes a rich spectrum of religious buildings from as far north as Ellora (Maharashtra) to as far south as Somnathapur (southern Karnataka) and dating from the 2nd century BC to as late as the 17th century AD.
This territory, ruled variously by the early Vakataka, the Kalachuri of Maharashtra and the Chalukya of Karnataka, the yadava, the Rashtrakuta, and then the Kadamba dynasties, continuously acted as a filter between the northern and southern cultures, ultimately absorbing much of both. It not only includes structures in both the Nagara and Dravida styles but also its own hybrid, the Chalukyan style. The great Deccan region was famous for this rich tradition, initiated around the same time as that of the Pallavas in southern India; for the grandeur of its ancient Buddhist and Jaina Shrines; and the splendour of its Vijayangara cities.
The hardy Chalukyans were the rulers who took Hindu archotecture beyond the realms of the mighty Gupta empire in the 5th century. They consolidated their dominion despite threats of foreign invasion from the north and hints of trouble with their neighbours, the Rashtrakutas. During their long reign, two phases of building activity occurred, the first being from 450-700 AD, the second lasting from the 11th to the 14th centuries AD.
The significant difference between the architecturally important temple of the Decan-sometimes called Deccani, attesting to their amalgam of northern and southern elements and those of Southern India , is that while a large number of the latter are centers of great temple towns, still used and Venerated, many of the former belong to long-gone empires and dead cities. Therefore, perhaps, they appear more ancient and distanced from the visitor.
Such is the case of the Hoysala temples of Halebid and Belur, the Chalukyan shrines of Badami or some of the austere Yadava Hemadpanti temples of souther Maharashtra near the Karnataka border. Though the superb 11th century Ambarnath temple, also in Maharashtra, is still in use, it suffers from lack of maintenance.
It must be remembered that in the Deccan, as anywhere else in India, there are also numerous smaller temples that may be architecturally or historically less notable than many of those featured in this book. Nonetheless, in terms of religion, they are dear to the local people and thus of great importance. These included temples like the one where the poet-saint, Jnaneshwar is celebrated, at Alandi in Maharashtra and Goan temples such as the oft-visited Mangeshi and Shantadurga. Many are devoted to local deities that are an amalgam of tradt\itional Hindu gods with older regional ones.
Another temple worthy of mention as a religious site is the relatively young shrine of Sai Baba in Shirdi, close to Nasik in Maharashtra. The people of modern India flock to this new tirtha to ask the blessing of the ‘latter-day’ saint who embodies the essence of national intergration. The small town sprang up, purely for economic reasons, around the temple. Nearby Nasik is also often visited for its shrines. It is also one of the four venues of the Kumbh Mela (see Hardwar. Chapter 4,).
The defacement of monuments is not a recent phenomenon. The religiously intolerant Portuguese (who first arrived in India in 1498, when Vasco da Gama landed in Kerala), disfigured many Indian shrines and sculptures. Among the unfortunate sites was Gharapuri. Ironically, it was these same Portuguese who gave the island the name it bears even today-Elephanta. It is reached by way of ferry from Bombay’s Apollo Bunder harbour. From the landing dock, a flight of stairs leads the visitor to the caves. Apart from the chief temple, there is a smaller linga shrine. The large shrine is cruciform in plan, with beautiful and moving panels carved in the Mandapa fronting the garba grha.
These powerful ‘murals’ which echo Siva’s moods and strength, also detail his life and forma; from his marriage to Parvati to his potent Tandava Nritya that shook the world, from his hermaphrodite avatar of Ardhanarishwara, the half-woman-half-man god who represents the two aspects of human beings-anima and animus, masculine and feminine, passive force and active, contrasting yet analogous halves of each person, to the splendid sculpture of the Trimurti on the south wall of the cave.
To create this marvel or engineering and artistry, with its complex plan, including various galleries and levels and its unforgettable and extensive carvings, a pit was dug into the ground to produce a courtyard 300 feet long and 175 feet wide, within which was cut a block of basalt, measuring 250 by 150 feet and standing 100 feet high. This was ingeniously carved from the top downwards omitting the necessity of scaffolding. Unlike its cave neighbours, the kailashnath being open to the sky and standing on a plinth 25 feet high, is lit even within its deep interiors. Lighting is also aided by the strategic placement of terraces, balconies, and courtyards. Although modern-day visitors may admire the dark rock of the three-tiered, 95 foot high Rashtrakuta shrine, it is likely that their after construction it was embellished with paint as indeed were many temples which now appear to be bare stone. The labyrinthine complex can be divided into four basic segments the pricipal Siva shrine; its west-facing entranceway; a shrine for Siva’s faithful vehicle, Nandi; and a courtyard set with cloisters. The main place of worship is the customary square sanctum with a massive Siva linga, an antarala, and a sixteen pillared mahamandapa. The shrine dedicated to Nandi is flanked by 51feet high, great dhvaja sthambha’s or free standing pillars, which are repeated throughout the complex relieving the denseness of the great stone temple.
It would take hours to explore the complex. One might easily lose oneself here. Each feature of the Kailashnath invites observation-its immense carved dwarapala-s, for instance, which recall the large statues of Kings at Thebes in Egypt; its mammoth pillars That dwarf the visitor and must have taken an extraordinary amount of time and dexterity to create; its large tableaux depicting not only the legendary to create; its large tableaux depicting not only the legendary episodes from the life of Shankara but scenes from what the local artists might have imagined his daily life to be like. He sits, surrounded by his family, in an ancient group ‘photograbh’ or spends his free time playing an ancient form of chess-chausar-with Parvati, his wife. There are several panels depicting the demon-god, Ravana, who was Rama’s opponent in the Ramayana but also a great Siva bhakt (devotee) who ultimately made the mistake of believing his powers could equal those of the great god. There are also colossal and impressive figures of elephants, lions and gryphons, vivid in depictions of battle or preying upon each other.
According to the annals of Pandharpur, many of the town’s Vishnu shrines originated at the sites where the god gave his faithful followers a darshan (sight of god, Epiphany). Take the hut temple of Taak Pithya Vishnu, for instance. Centuries ago, an old womansought to visit the famous Vithoba shrine located in the most holy part of Pandharpur but could not reach it because of the hordes of pilgrims pushing to get in. For 15 days she waited in her hut, refusing to eat until she could offer Vithoba taak (buttermilk) and pith (flour, in this case, bread). Finally he took pity on her, coming to her humble home and allowing her to worship him there. Thus the hut gained importance as a holy sthana.
Vishnu’s main abode, the vithoba temple, is located in the centre of the raised, holy part of town. It is a short walk from the ole woman’s hut. Of uncertain date, it was probably a primitive shrine that was formally sanctified around the 12th century AD. Renovated and added to over the centuries, the temple is a notchpotch of architectural elements. It can be entered from the river by way of a ghat where a brass plaque commemorated the samadhi (final resting place) of the well known Marathi Vishnu devotee and poet, Namdev.
Apart from the main shrine, the vithoba temple complex also contains a 16 pillared temple, a black stone Saraswati shrine and a shejghar (bedroom), complete with silver couch for the god. But what people really come to see is the temple’s unique idol, probably sculpted not later than the 5th or 6th century AD. Vithoba, carved in polished black stone, is garbed in the regional dress, including the local headgear. He stands straight and tall on a brick, arms akimbo, waiting for the devotee to approach him. The legend of why he is depicted on that brick is an engaging example of how myth has become connected with the region’s history. Centuries ago, there lived in Pandharpur a caste-conscious Brahmin called pundalik. He was selfish and rude, and a disobedient son to boot. One day he embarked on a tirtha yatra (journey of pilgrimage) to varanasi, talking his parents with him.
On the way, his chappals (slippers) tore so he stopped at the home of Rudradas, a cobbler (traditionally considered low caste), to have them repaired, Rudradas, engaged in serving his aged parents, asked Pundalik to wait. While he did so, the arrogant Brahmin noticed two beautiful women sweeping the cobbler’s yard.
As soon as he had time, Rudradas mended the pilgrim’s shoes but would take no fee from him. "You are on your way to Kashi, I see", he said. "If you would be kind enough to put this coin in the Ganga for me, I would be grateful." Pundalik agreed to do so. When he reached Varanasi he threw the copper in, remembering his promise to Rudradas. Suddenly the beautiful arm of a woman adorned with a gold bangle appeared out of the water. Pundalik took it to be a sign from God and removed the bangle to take back to the cobbler.
When he returned to Rudradas’ home, he saw the two fair women again and realized that they were the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, for one of them was missing a bangle, the very one that Pundalik had removed from the arm in the holy river. He was so impressed by the fact that goddesses themselves were serving Rudradas as reward for his great devotion to his parents, that he immediately repented his own unfilial attitude and vowed to turn over a new leaf.
Soon Pundalik became so renowned for his piety and dedication that people came from near and far to meet him and be blessed by him. His fame even reached Vithoba, who decided to pay the Brahmia a visit. But just as he had introduced himself to Pundalik, the Brahmin’s parents called out to him from within the house. So greatly changed was Pundalik that asking Vithoba to wait while he attended to them, he gave him a brick on which to stand. So God stopped for man. And that’s how patient Vithoba stands even today waiting for his devotees to have the time to come to him. In this unusual temple town, even the traditional pilgrim’s chant Pundalik, Var de, Hari Vithal (Oh Pundalik and Vithal, please grant me a boon), in which the invocation of man (Pundalik) precedes that of god (Hari or Vithal), reflects the synergetic relationship that mortals shared with the divine.
Five hundred yards east of the mainVithoba shrines, is one dedicated to pundalik. Made of stone masonry, the structure consists of garba grha and sabha (council or gathering) mandapa and contains a smooth quartz linga proteced by a black stone shalunka (casing). The temple is also said to contain Pundalik’s own samadhi.
For five days in February and March, the Koli fisherfolk woship here singing bhajan-s day and night. Close by is the Lohdanda Tirtha (pond) where Pundalik gave up sin. Its waters are said to be so pure that even boats carved of stone float upon them. Another temple immured in myth and mystery is the Vishnupaad (see Vishnuped, Gaya, Chapter 4), south of the Lohdanda Tirtha and set in the bed of the Bhima river. Notwithstanding the fact that it is submerged for three and a half months each year, this shrine is one of the most sacred tirtha-s in pandharpur and the spot where Krishna and his companions celebrated his reconciliation (after one of his frequent quarrels) with Rukmini. In the tiny central shrine are three rocks with six inch long indentations in them. People claim these marks to be the footprints of Vishnu’s Krishna avatar. Apparently also visible are the hoof marks of his cow. The prints on one rock indicate that the god stood there, feet firmly planted on the ground.
According to prints on another, Krishna stood at this spot on his left foot, with the right one crossed over it and resting on his toes. This is an attitude in which he is customarily depicted in Hindu sculpture and painting; playing his flute and perhaps leaning against one of his faithful cows. Devotees worship at these rocks every afternoon and a clean of local priests called Badva look after the shrine and perform pooja. The town of pandharpur is filled with pilgrims all year round but becomes even more lively during the months of April, July and November when pilgrims gather from all over the state to take part in its religious fairs.
There are approximately 70 shrines at the architecturally rich but relatively little-known village site of Aihole, in northern Kanara. Built between 450 and 700 AD, they prefigure later Chalukyan structures but are too experimental and tentative as yet to display any strong characterizing features.
The hall is lit by means of wide stone grilled windows behind which is the circumambulatory. In the midst of this is a raised sanctum containing idols of the presiding deity, Siva, as well as carvings of river goddess. The slightly sloping roof of the Lad Khan is again typical of this early period where the practice of using timber for building was so common that though the roof here is of solid stone, its installment replicated tiles held in place by logs of wood angles over them. The tiered roof is ‘broken’ in the middle by a dormer-style window with an element of the Shikhara in the way it draws the viewers’ eyes heavemwards.
Sparely decorated, the shrine also possesses plain stone exteriors with some carving detail on the pillars of the gallery that surrounds the structure enclosing the Pradakshina path. It is unlike later temples all over the country that utilized ornate external portions and austere interiors. The inside of the Durga temple’s verandah-like pradakshina path has decorative Chaitya windows and is also carved with figures whose features one usually associated with Buddhist sculpture. In its rough-hewn style, the shrine greatly resembles the ancient rock-cut caves of Karli (Maharashtra) or Ellora, rather than the intricacy of free-standing stone temples. Its garba grha is topped by a short curvilinear shikhara, more in the Nagara style than the Dravida, with carved vertical segments protruding out from the curving building.
It was the commemorative site for the Chalukyan rulers from the 7th to 9th centuries A D. The temples here include Kada Siddeswara, Jambulinga, Sangameswara, Mallikarjuna, Virupaksha and Papanatha.
Still, the gopuram, nascent in the Kanchi structure, is missing in this shrine and though it retains much of the austerity of the earlier Aihole temples, it does also possess a substantial number of carvings on its walls, mouldings, pillars, brackets and windows. These are executed n the indigenous style of the Kanara region.
The shrine is fronted by a closed, many-pillared and intricately carved mandapa with recesses containing statuary separated by stone grilled windows. This hall is entered through a deep porch-like vestibule. A narrow strip of land separated the structure from the Nandi pavilion before it. This open canopy with massive round pillars and curving stone awning, resembling the silk or wooden chatri (umbrella/canopy) of kings, protects a large, highly polished, black stone bull.
Nandi can, from his vantage point, ‘look’ straight down the passageway and hall to ensure the safety of his Lord in the garba grha, built along the same axis as the subsidiary structures. The bull sits untiring, alert and concerned for his lord. Above him are several bells, new additions, of course, in imitation of some that must have hung there before. An important Chalukyan site in Andhra Pradesh is that of Warangal, once the capital city of the Kakatiyas who ruled of much of that state from the 12th to the 14th century. Of the remaining temples there; the Bhadrakali, the Swayambu and the Thousand pillar, the last is also the most important. Unfortunately, visitors will need to employ all their faculties of imagination to envision, its grandeur as the complex is in a reprehensible condition, with all but one shrine in ruins. Even the remains have not been spared by vandals.<
According to the Ramayana, Hampi was ruled in ancient times by the monkey brothers. Valli and Sugreeva. In a tussle for sovereignty, Valli drove Sugreeva out and he camped on the renowned hill, Matanga Parvatam, with his small but faithful band of followers, amongst whom was Hanuman. When Rama and Lakshmana passed through the area on their way to Lanka, Sugreeva enlisted their help to regain his kingdom.
Rama killed the evil Vali, restored Sugreeva to the throne and gained, thereby, a group of loyal soldiers. Hanuman became his aide from that day forward. The company waited anxiously on the nearby Malyavanta Hill till news of Sita sent them off on their journey again. Various white streaks on rocks in the cave where Sugreeva hid Sita’s jewels, are still condidered to be marks left by her clothing. A huge mound of ash is thought to be Vali’s remains.
The region is abundant in mystery and enigma. The ruins f the ancient capital, spread over 15.6 square miles and sprinkled with shrines from various eras, bring forth images of a bustling and prosperous city. Numerous travelers from around the world attempted to describe the wonders of Vijayanagara in vain. "The City of Bijanagar is such that the eye has not seen, nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth," wrote the Persian traveler, Abdur Razzak in the 15th century; about 100 years later, a Portuguese visitor wrote. "The city is situated like Milan, but not in a plain…It appears to me to be a second paradise." Today, we can only imagine its grandeur from the ruins, which itself is a statement of Hampi’s glory. The homes of both rulers and ruled are gone. So are most of the fortifications and army buildings. The only structures visible in once-mighty Hampi are its religious once. As temples came to symbolize wealth and power, more money, time and effort was spent on their construction than even on the private palaces of kings. While contemporary manuscripts or travelogues documenting different periods in Indian history might wax eloquent about the beautiful homes, promenades, pleasure gardens and public buildings that ancient cities possessed, the only current evidence of this lies in their places of worship. In Hampi these belong to several eras, the oldest being thepre-Vijayanagara temples, most belonging to the later chalukyan style. Two Devi shrines, some Jaina temples with steppe, pyramidal vimana-s on hemakutam Hill, and a few around the tank of Manmatha Gundam, are from this period.
The Vijayanagara style, which grew out of the influential chalukyan as well as the Tamil Pandyan traditions, came into its own over three centuries, from about 1350 to 1600 AD. It is distinguished by its highly ornate and intricate details in hard granite. Most of the temples of this period possess covered pillared halls, vestibules and circumambulatories and medium sized gopuram-s But the showpiece of each temple is its collection of huge, finely carved, highly polished black stone pillars.
The Hazara Rama, 110 by 200 feet, was enclosed behind a high wall and consisted of a graba grha, several mandapa-s, including a large kalyana mandapa (temple hall where rituals such as weddings were held), used for the ritual marriage ceremony of the gods, and a number of porches. Facing eastward, with a decorated platform, the small but profusely decorated shrine had four of the noted Hampi stone pillaras, decotated with images of Ganesha, Hanuman, the Vishnu avatar, and the Mahishasuramdinin. Also embellished were its walls where episodes from the Ramayana are depicted.
This territory, ruled variously by the early Vakataka, the Kalachuri of Maharashtra and the Chalukya of Karnataka, the yadava, the Rashtrakuta, and then the Kadamba dynasties, continuously acted as a filter between the northern and southern cultures, ultimately absorbing much of both. It not only includes structures in both the Nagara and Dravida styles but also its own hybrid, the Chalukyan style. The great Deccan region was famous for this rich tradition, initiated around the same time as that of the Pallavas in southern India; for the grandeur of its ancient Buddhist and Jaina Shrines; and the splendour of its Vijayangara cities.
The hardy Chalukyans were the rulers who took Hindu archotecture beyond the realms of the mighty Gupta empire in the 5th century. They consolidated their dominion despite threats of foreign invasion from the north and hints of trouble with their neighbours, the Rashtrakutas. During their long reign, two phases of building activity occurred, the first being from 450-700 AD, the second lasting from the 11th to the 14th centuries AD.
The significant difference between the architecturally important temple of the Decan-sometimes called Deccani, attesting to their amalgam of northern and southern elements and those of Southern India , is that while a large number of the latter are centers of great temple towns, still used and Venerated, many of the former belong to long-gone empires and dead cities. Therefore, perhaps, they appear more ancient and distanced from the visitor.
Such is the case of the Hoysala temples of Halebid and Belur, the Chalukyan shrines of Badami or some of the austere Yadava Hemadpanti temples of souther Maharashtra near the Karnataka border. Though the superb 11th century Ambarnath temple, also in Maharashtra, is still in use, it suffers from lack of maintenance.
It must be remembered that in the Deccan, as anywhere else in India, there are also numerous smaller temples that may be architecturally or historically less notable than many of those featured in this book. Nonetheless, in terms of religion, they are dear to the local people and thus of great importance. These included temples like the one where the poet-saint, Jnaneshwar is celebrated, at Alandi in Maharashtra and Goan temples such as the oft-visited Mangeshi and Shantadurga. Many are devoted to local deities that are an amalgam of tradt\itional Hindu gods with older regional ones.
Another temple worthy of mention as a religious site is the relatively young shrine of Sai Baba in Shirdi, close to Nasik in Maharashtra. The people of modern India flock to this new tirtha to ask the blessing of the ‘latter-day’ saint who embodies the essence of national intergration. The small town sprang up, purely for economic reasons, around the temple. Nearby Nasik is also often visited for its shrines. It is also one of the four venues of the Kumbh Mela (see Hardwar. Chapter 4,).
Elephanta At Mumbai
The magnificent cave temples, with their mammoth and awe inspiring sculptures, on the island of Gharapuri (the island of elephants), are a world heritage site. Despite this status and their popularity among tourists, the Saivite shrines, cut between 450-750 AD, continue to be desecrated by vandals unconcerned about their historical and religious significance.The defacement of monuments is not a recent phenomenon. The religiously intolerant Portuguese (who first arrived in India in 1498, when Vasco da Gama landed in Kerala), disfigured many Indian shrines and sculptures. Among the unfortunate sites was Gharapuri. Ironically, it was these same Portuguese who gave the island the name it bears even today-Elephanta. It is reached by way of ferry from Bombay’s Apollo Bunder harbour. From the landing dock, a flight of stairs leads the visitor to the caves. Apart from the chief temple, there is a smaller linga shrine. The large shrine is cruciform in plan, with beautiful and moving panels carved in the Mandapa fronting the garba grha.
These powerful ‘murals’ which echo Siva’s moods and strength, also detail his life and forma; from his marriage to Parvati to his potent Tandava Nritya that shook the world, from his hermaphrodite avatar of Ardhanarishwara, the half-woman-half-man god who represents the two aspects of human beings-anima and animus, masculine and feminine, passive force and active, contrasting yet analogous halves of each person, to the splendid sculpture of the Trimurti on the south wall of the cave.
Ellora
By the beginning of the 7th century AD, free-standing structures had come into their own but Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu rock cut shrines continued to be popular for three centuries or so more. Not far from Ajanta, there began to be cut , in a two mile stretch of north-south hillside at Ellora, the columned halls favoured by contemporary Hindus and Buddhists. The Rashtrakutas, who had defeated one branch of the Chalukyas, were the patrons of these cave shrines, carving the important ones like the Dashavatara, the Rameshwara and the Ravana-ki-khai, each a must-see. Of the 34 cave shrines t Ellora 17 are Hindu.Kailashnath
The one monumental structure on the Ellora hill range is the monolithic Kailashnath shrine of Siva, representing the mountain abode of the destroyer and therefore appropriately born of the rocky cliff itself and unsupported by any extraneous fortifying elements. It is a common misconception that Kailashnath, dedicated to Siva and hewn between 760 and 800 AD, is a cave. In reality, the whole structure was carved out of the hill to be a freestanding temple, detached from all three sides of its mother rock and, according to a noted documentarian of Indian architecture, covers twice the area of the Parthenon in Athens and is one and a half times as high. If there were to bean eight wonder of the world, this could be it.To create this marvel or engineering and artistry, with its complex plan, including various galleries and levels and its unforgettable and extensive carvings, a pit was dug into the ground to produce a courtyard 300 feet long and 175 feet wide, within which was cut a block of basalt, measuring 250 by 150 feet and standing 100 feet high. This was ingeniously carved from the top downwards omitting the necessity of scaffolding. Unlike its cave neighbours, the kailashnath being open to the sky and standing on a plinth 25 feet high, is lit even within its deep interiors. Lighting is also aided by the strategic placement of terraces, balconies, and courtyards. Although modern-day visitors may admire the dark rock of the three-tiered, 95 foot high Rashtrakuta shrine, it is likely that their after construction it was embellished with paint as indeed were many temples which now appear to be bare stone. The labyrinthine complex can be divided into four basic segments the pricipal Siva shrine; its west-facing entranceway; a shrine for Siva’s faithful vehicle, Nandi; and a courtyard set with cloisters. The main place of worship is the customary square sanctum with a massive Siva linga, an antarala, and a sixteen pillared mahamandapa. The shrine dedicated to Nandi is flanked by 51feet high, great dhvaja sthambha’s or free standing pillars, which are repeated throughout the complex relieving the denseness of the great stone temple.
It would take hours to explore the complex. One might easily lose oneself here. Each feature of the Kailashnath invites observation-its immense carved dwarapala-s, for instance, which recall the large statues of Kings at Thebes in Egypt; its mammoth pillars That dwarf the visitor and must have taken an extraordinary amount of time and dexterity to create; its large tableaux depicting not only the legendary to create; its large tableaux depicting not only the legendary episodes from the life of Shankara but scenes from what the local artists might have imagined his daily life to be like. He sits, surrounded by his family, in an ancient group ‘photograbh’ or spends his free time playing an ancient form of chess-chausar-with Parvati, his wife. There are several panels depicting the demon-god, Ravana, who was Rama’s opponent in the Ramayana but also a great Siva bhakt (devotee) who ultimately made the mistake of believing his powers could equal those of the great god. There are also colossal and impressive figures of elephants, lions and gryphons, vivid in depictions of battle or preying upon each other.
Pandharpur
Pundalik var de, Hari Vithal (pundalik, grant us a boon, Hari Vithal) The god of Pandharpur lives in the land of the common people. Vithoba (Vishnu’s local name, an affectionate form of Vithal), the village deity, has traditionally been the god of the masses, living like them, even looking and behaving as one of them rather than an awesome superior being. In the heartland of the Bhakti movement (which advocated intimacy or personal communion with God), Vithoba came down to earth frequently and interacted with his devotees in the Pandharikshetra situated on the southern bank of the Bhima river in the Solapur district of Maharashtra.According to the annals of Pandharpur, many of the town’s Vishnu shrines originated at the sites where the god gave his faithful followers a darshan (sight of god, Epiphany). Take the hut temple of Taak Pithya Vishnu, for instance. Centuries ago, an old womansought to visit the famous Vithoba shrine located in the most holy part of Pandharpur but could not reach it because of the hordes of pilgrims pushing to get in. For 15 days she waited in her hut, refusing to eat until she could offer Vithoba taak (buttermilk) and pith (flour, in this case, bread). Finally he took pity on her, coming to her humble home and allowing her to worship him there. Thus the hut gained importance as a holy sthana.
Vishnu’s main abode, the vithoba temple, is located in the centre of the raised, holy part of town. It is a short walk from the ole woman’s hut. Of uncertain date, it was probably a primitive shrine that was formally sanctified around the 12th century AD. Renovated and added to over the centuries, the temple is a notchpotch of architectural elements. It can be entered from the river by way of a ghat where a brass plaque commemorated the samadhi (final resting place) of the well known Marathi Vishnu devotee and poet, Namdev.
Apart from the main shrine, the vithoba temple complex also contains a 16 pillared temple, a black stone Saraswati shrine and a shejghar (bedroom), complete with silver couch for the god. But what people really come to see is the temple’s unique idol, probably sculpted not later than the 5th or 6th century AD. Vithoba, carved in polished black stone, is garbed in the regional dress, including the local headgear. He stands straight and tall on a brick, arms akimbo, waiting for the devotee to approach him. The legend of why he is depicted on that brick is an engaging example of how myth has become connected with the region’s history. Centuries ago, there lived in Pandharpur a caste-conscious Brahmin called pundalik. He was selfish and rude, and a disobedient son to boot. One day he embarked on a tirtha yatra (journey of pilgrimage) to varanasi, talking his parents with him.
On the way, his chappals (slippers) tore so he stopped at the home of Rudradas, a cobbler (traditionally considered low caste), to have them repaired, Rudradas, engaged in serving his aged parents, asked Pundalik to wait. While he did so, the arrogant Brahmin noticed two beautiful women sweeping the cobbler’s yard.
As soon as he had time, Rudradas mended the pilgrim’s shoes but would take no fee from him. "You are on your way to Kashi, I see", he said. "If you would be kind enough to put this coin in the Ganga for me, I would be grateful." Pundalik agreed to do so. When he reached Varanasi he threw the copper in, remembering his promise to Rudradas. Suddenly the beautiful arm of a woman adorned with a gold bangle appeared out of the water. Pundalik took it to be a sign from God and removed the bangle to take back to the cobbler.
When he returned to Rudradas’ home, he saw the two fair women again and realized that they were the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, for one of them was missing a bangle, the very one that Pundalik had removed from the arm in the holy river. He was so impressed by the fact that goddesses themselves were serving Rudradas as reward for his great devotion to his parents, that he immediately repented his own unfilial attitude and vowed to turn over a new leaf.
Soon Pundalik became so renowned for his piety and dedication that people came from near and far to meet him and be blessed by him. His fame even reached Vithoba, who decided to pay the Brahmia a visit. But just as he had introduced himself to Pundalik, the Brahmin’s parents called out to him from within the house. So greatly changed was Pundalik that asking Vithoba to wait while he attended to them, he gave him a brick on which to stand. So God stopped for man. And that’s how patient Vithoba stands even today waiting for his devotees to have the time to come to him. In this unusual temple town, even the traditional pilgrim’s chant Pundalik, Var de, Hari Vithal (Oh Pundalik and Vithal, please grant me a boon), in which the invocation of man (Pundalik) precedes that of god (Hari or Vithal), reflects the synergetic relationship that mortals shared with the divine.
Five hundred yards east of the mainVithoba shrines, is one dedicated to pundalik. Made of stone masonry, the structure consists of garba grha and sabha (council or gathering) mandapa and contains a smooth quartz linga proteced by a black stone shalunka (casing). The temple is also said to contain Pundalik’s own samadhi.
For five days in February and March, the Koli fisherfolk woship here singing bhajan-s day and night. Close by is the Lohdanda Tirtha (pond) where Pundalik gave up sin. Its waters are said to be so pure that even boats carved of stone float upon them. Another temple immured in myth and mystery is the Vishnupaad (see Vishnuped, Gaya, Chapter 4), south of the Lohdanda Tirtha and set in the bed of the Bhima river. Notwithstanding the fact that it is submerged for three and a half months each year, this shrine is one of the most sacred tirtha-s in pandharpur and the spot where Krishna and his companions celebrated his reconciliation (after one of his frequent quarrels) with Rukmini. In the tiny central shrine are three rocks with six inch long indentations in them. People claim these marks to be the footprints of Vishnu’s Krishna avatar. Apparently also visible are the hoof marks of his cow. The prints on one rock indicate that the god stood there, feet firmly planted on the ground.
According to prints on another, Krishna stood at this spot on his left foot, with the right one crossed over it and resting on his toes. This is an attitude in which he is customarily depicted in Hindu sculpture and painting; playing his flute and perhaps leaning against one of his faithful cows. Devotees worship at these rocks every afternoon and a clean of local priests called Badva look after the shrine and perform pooja. The town of pandharpur is filled with pilgrims all year round but becomes even more lively during the months of April, July and November when pilgrims gather from all over the state to take part in its religious fairs.
Aihole
This was the capital of early Chalukyas (6th to 8th centuries A D). Situated on the banks of Malaprabha river, Aihole is well known as the cradle of Hindu temple architecture. There are about 125 temples devided into 22 groups. Temples of Durga, Ladh Khan, Gowda, Suryanarayana, Konto and Ramalinga swamy are sone of the important ones. Aihole is 34 km from Bagalkot.There are approximately 70 shrines at the architecturally rich but relatively little-known village site of Aihole, in northern Kanara. Built between 450 and 700 AD, they prefigure later Chalukyan structures but are too experimental and tentative as yet to display any strong characterizing features.
Lad Khan
The most famous among these is an unusually named shrine, the Lad Khan. The 5th century temple derives its name from a Muslim hermit, Lad Khan, who lived in a hut close to it. It is a squat structure, only 50 feet wide, built on a high, wide stone platform. With a flattish, low tiered roof and uncluttered by other structures around. Prioritizing utility over ornamentation, it is spate and clean of line, consisting of sanctum, covered mandapa and square-pillared porch decorated with sculpture-the whole of it patterned on the square nine pillar plan dictated by contemporary northern design.The hall is lit by means of wide stone grilled windows behind which is the circumambulatory. In the midst of this is a raised sanctum containing idols of the presiding deity, Siva, as well as carvings of river goddess. The slightly sloping roof of the Lad Khan is again typical of this early period where the practice of using timber for building was so common that though the roof here is of solid stone, its installment replicated tiles held in place by logs of wood angles over them. The tiered roof is ‘broken’ in the middle by a dormer-style window with an element of the Shikhara in the way it draws the viewers’ eyes heavemwards.
Durga
This Brahmanical temple is a fascinating sight for, seen from a distance, it resembles the image of a yoni Within which is set a Siva linga. An apsidal structure built on a high, moulded plinth, it is contemporary to, or slightly younger than, the Lad Khan. It is also a rare structure belonging to a short-lived experiment which attempts the curved plan of the Buddhist chaitya with a rounded end where the altar is located. In front of it is located a small, square altar probably used for the vehicle of goddess Durga, the tiger.Sparely decorated, the shrine also possesses plain stone exteriors with some carving detail on the pillars of the gallery that surrounds the structure enclosing the Pradakshina path. It is unlike later temples all over the country that utilized ornate external portions and austere interiors. The inside of the Durga temple’s verandah-like pradakshina path has decorative Chaitya windows and is also carved with figures whose features one usually associated with Buddhist sculpture. In its rough-hewn style, the shrine greatly resembles the ancient rock-cut caves of Karli (Maharashtra) or Ellora, rather than the intricacy of free-standing stone temples. Its garba grha is topped by a short curvilinear shikhara, more in the Nagara style than the Dravida, with carved vertical segments protruding out from the curving building.
Pattadakal
From Aihole’s early structures, the focus soon shifted to the modified shrines at Badami nearby but within a hundred years or so, around the mid-seventh century AD, building activity moved once more, this time to nearby Pattadakal. This site contains some of the most evolved temples of Chalukyan architecture, four in the Nagara style and the remaining six in the Dravida. It is said that the craftsmen who built these temples were talented Pallava artisans brought forcibly to the site from Kanchipurm by Chalukyan conquerors during the founding of Pattadakal. The Chalukyan kings wanted to ensure the architectural splendour of their new kingdom. The use of the same artists would account for some of the similarities between structures of both regions. Indeed, the Virupaksha temple which supposedly inspired the creation of the gigantic Kailashnath of Ellora was itself derived from the temple of the same name at Kanchi.It was the commemorative site for the Chalukyan rulers from the 7th to 9th centuries A D. The temples here include Kada Siddeswara, Jambulinga, Sangameswara, Mallikarjuna, Virupaksha and Papanatha.
Koodalasangama
This important pilgrim center is situated at the confluence of the Malaprabha and Krishna rivers. The Siva temple here is dedicated to Lord Sangameswara. In the temple complex, there are images of Basaveshwara, his consort Neelamma, Nandi and Ganesha.Temples in Dharwad district
This district boasts of a few major shrines, built in the 12th century by Kalyani Chalukyas and Vijayangar rulers. These include Doddabasappa temple at Dambala (75 km from Dharwad); Someshwara temple at Lakshmeshwara temple at Gadag (75 km); Siddhadeva temple at Haveri (90 km); Adikeshava temple at Kaginelli (14 km from Haveri-the diety here was installed by saint Kanakadasa); Mallari temple at Gudda Guddaapura (5 km from Devaragudda station); Jain temple at Lakkundi.Virupakhsa
This Pattadakal shrine is the site’s most renowned one for while many of the other shrines were failed attempts at experimentation with various styles, the Dravida Virupaksha shrine of Siva is not only well proportioned but refined. It is one of four great Saivite temples at Pattadakal, the others being the Papanatha (Nagara), the Sangameshvar and the Mallikarjuna (both Dravida). Virupaksha was constructed around 740 AD and its Pallava influence is visible in its plan and structural style, from the stepped shikhara, smaller than even the initial ones in Tamil Nadu, right down to the enclosing wall around the structure.Still, the gopuram, nascent in the Kanchi structure, is missing in this shrine and though it retains much of the austerity of the earlier Aihole temples, it does also possess a substantial number of carvings on its walls, mouldings, pillars, brackets and windows. These are executed n the indigenous style of the Kanara region.
The shrine is fronted by a closed, many-pillared and intricately carved mandapa with recesses containing statuary separated by stone grilled windows. This hall is entered through a deep porch-like vestibule. A narrow strip of land separated the structure from the Nandi pavilion before it. This open canopy with massive round pillars and curving stone awning, resembling the silk or wooden chatri (umbrella/canopy) of kings, protects a large, highly polished, black stone bull.
Nandi can, from his vantage point, ‘look’ straight down the passageway and hall to ensure the safety of his Lord in the garba grha, built along the same axis as the subsidiary structures. The bull sits untiring, alert and concerned for his lord. Above him are several bells, new additions, of course, in imitation of some that must have hung there before. An important Chalukyan site in Andhra Pradesh is that of Warangal, once the capital city of the Kakatiyas who ruled of much of that state from the 12th to the 14th century. Of the remaining temples there; the Bhadrakali, the Swayambu and the Thousand pillar, the last is also the most important. Unfortunately, visitors will need to employ all their faculties of imagination to envision, its grandeur as the complex is in a reprehensible condition, with all but one shrine in ruins. Even the remains have not been spared by vandals.<
Hampi
On his journey south to Lanka to recover his abducted wife Sita, the legendary hero Rama, accompanied by his brother Lakshmana, traversed much of the Indian subcontinent. Wherever he was though to have stopped to rest or pray, a temple was constructed to mark the holy site. One such place is in the famed town of Hampi, the seat of the Vijayanagara kings (the most well known of these being Krishnadevaraya). During his reign, Hampi (and indeed the entire kingdom), located on the holy Tungabhadra river near Hospet in south Kanara, flourished, not only economically, but also in the fields of art, literature, music, and architecture. The large capital was also renowned as an exceedingly sacred site, called Bhaskarakshetra because it had the rare honour of possessing shrines to all the gods of the holy trinity Brahma, Vishnu andmaheshwara (yet another name for Siva). It was also called Kishkindakshetra and Pampakshetra, this last title probably being corrupted over the centuries to give the site its present name.According to the Ramayana, Hampi was ruled in ancient times by the monkey brothers. Valli and Sugreeva. In a tussle for sovereignty, Valli drove Sugreeva out and he camped on the renowned hill, Matanga Parvatam, with his small but faithful band of followers, amongst whom was Hanuman. When Rama and Lakshmana passed through the area on their way to Lanka, Sugreeva enlisted their help to regain his kingdom.
Rama killed the evil Vali, restored Sugreeva to the throne and gained, thereby, a group of loyal soldiers. Hanuman became his aide from that day forward. The company waited anxiously on the nearby Malyavanta Hill till news of Sita sent them off on their journey again. Various white streaks on rocks in the cave where Sugreeva hid Sita’s jewels, are still condidered to be marks left by her clothing. A huge mound of ash is thought to be Vali’s remains.
The region is abundant in mystery and enigma. The ruins f the ancient capital, spread over 15.6 square miles and sprinkled with shrines from various eras, bring forth images of a bustling and prosperous city. Numerous travelers from around the world attempted to describe the wonders of Vijayanagara in vain. "The City of Bijanagar is such that the eye has not seen, nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth," wrote the Persian traveler, Abdur Razzak in the 15th century; about 100 years later, a Portuguese visitor wrote. "The city is situated like Milan, but not in a plain…It appears to me to be a second paradise." Today, we can only imagine its grandeur from the ruins, which itself is a statement of Hampi’s glory. The homes of both rulers and ruled are gone. So are most of the fortifications and army buildings. The only structures visible in once-mighty Hampi are its religious once. As temples came to symbolize wealth and power, more money, time and effort was spent on their construction than even on the private palaces of kings. While contemporary manuscripts or travelogues documenting different periods in Indian history might wax eloquent about the beautiful homes, promenades, pleasure gardens and public buildings that ancient cities possessed, the only current evidence of this lies in their places of worship. In Hampi these belong to several eras, the oldest being thepre-Vijayanagara temples, most belonging to the later chalukyan style. Two Devi shrines, some Jaina temples with steppe, pyramidal vimana-s on hemakutam Hill, and a few around the tank of Manmatha Gundam, are from this period.
The Vijayanagara style, which grew out of the influential chalukyan as well as the Tamil Pandyan traditions, came into its own over three centuries, from about 1350 to 1600 AD. It is distinguished by its highly ornate and intricate details in hard granite. Most of the temples of this period possess covered pillared halls, vestibules and circumambulatories and medium sized gopuram-s But the showpiece of each temple is its collection of huge, finely carved, highly polished black stone pillars.
Hazara Rama
This new empty temple which once stood outside the north western corner of the Hampi palace enclosure, was once thought to be dedicated to the Vishnu avatar, Rama. Its name may actually derive from the Telugu word hajaramu, meaning ‘ancient hall’.The Hazara Rama, 110 by 200 feet, was enclosed behind a high wall and consisted of a graba grha, several mandapa-s, including a large kalyana mandapa (temple hall where rituals such as weddings were held), used for the ritual marriage ceremony of the gods, and a number of porches. Facing eastward, with a decorated platform, the small but profusely decorated shrine had four of the noted Hampi stone pillaras, decotated with images of Ganesha, Hanuman, the Vishnu avatar, and the Mahishasuramdinin. Also embellished were its walls where episodes from the Ramayana are depicted.
