Temple of India – Where It All Began
Khajuraho-Kandariya Mahadev, Lakshmana, Chausat Yogini, Matangeshwara, Duladep; Varanasi-Viswanatha, Durga; Gaya, Ayodhya, Mathura, Vrundavan, Hardwar, Gwalior-Teli kaMandir, Sas-Bahu; Gyraspur-MalaDevi; Udayapur-
Neelkanteshwar
The architectural style loosely termed Nagara or metropolitan, refers to a wide range of temples built over a large expanse of time and space across the trunk of the Indian subcontiment. This stretches from Uttar Pradesh in the north to Maharashtra in the south and from Rajasthan in the west to the borders of Bengal in theeast. It encompasses much of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya pradesh and Bihar.
The region, broadly known as central India, home of the Ganga and the Yamuna rivers, flowing down from the Himalayas, was well-watered and fertile. This was one of the reasons why not only civilization could take birth and prosper here but the seeds of Hinduism could germinate and blossom. It was also, almost continuously, the core around which empires flourished, the premier one being the Mauryan in the 3rd 4th centuries BC.
When its ruler, the famous Asoka; newly converted to Buddhism, advocated the use of stone for building, it was a crucial turning point in the history of Indian architecture. Prior to this era, builders used materials like timber, plaster, and brick, which explains why hardly any pre-Mauryan structures survise in India today. The next major impetus to the art of construction came from the Guptas (400-600 AD), who re-advocated the use of stone but on a larger scale and over a wider area. Although not many of their flat-roofed shrines survive (most extant examples are located in this prosperous Gangetic basin), they set a trend for construction that would lead to the evolution of the temple form.
The central province is a mini-representation of the entire nation with its varying climates, geography, races, cultures and religions. Little wonder then that its Hindu building tradition is complex and varied. The style of religious architecture, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina, that has developed in central India over the past 2,000 years and more, contains some of the most diverse and rich temples in the country. It outlines the evolution of the art from its earliest extant brick temple at Bhitargaon, to the pioneering Gupta rock edicts, pillars, and cave chaitya-s at Sanchi and Bodhgaya; from the highly developed tradition of Khajuraho and beyond to the later post Mughal structures built by Hindu princes in varanasi and Vrundavan. In the history of northern Hindu architecture, the regions that stand out as excellent examples of the Nagara (also called Indo-Aryan) style, are Rajasthan-Gujarat; Orissa; and Central India. Within this last are the renowned temples at Khajuraho, in the Bundelkhand district of Madhya pradesh. The three groups of temples at Khajuraho, famous foremost for their erotic sculptures which draw tourists from all over the world, in reality are the acme of expertise and refinement reached by medieval Nagara architects, after the rules and guidelines for construction had been evolved by their classical predecessors.
According to legend, the main gateway to the town was ornamented with two golden palm trees, hence its name, ‘the place of the date palm.’ More likely, it derives from the preponderance of pala trees in the locality. A great annual fair was held here on the occasion of Mahasivaratri, the birthday of Lord Siva. The fair is one tradition that has apparently survived to the present time though very few pilgrims attend it now. The theory that a city once existed here makes a little more understandable the mystery of why the Chandelas, Staunch Saivites, created a fabulous array of intricate and erotic Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina temples in an otherwise unattractive location, absolutely off the beaten track. Where did the artisans come from who were their models How was such a large-scale project financed Few clues remain. Today Khajuraho is but a sleepy little town of some 6,000 people, 27 miles from Chhatarpur, situated at the south eastern corner of the Khajuraho Sagar or Nimora Tal that ibn Batuta wrote about. At the lake, only about 20 structures survive, from the 85 that supposedly once existed. Although many fell prey to time and lack of maintenance, Sultan Sikander Lodi is responsible for the destruction of the others in 1494-1495, only 500 years after their construction.
The temples, all built in the Indo-Aryan style between 950 and 1050 AD, indicate a continuous spate of activity in an already finely honed art rather than a stage of an evolutionary process. They are arranged in three groups; the western, eastern and southern, all but one being oriented north to south. The structures are externally very similar, built in granite or a combination of light coloured sandstone (imported from the Panna quarries) and granite. Since many of the idols of the main deities have been removed or defaced, it is often puzzling to distinguish which deity a temple was dedicated to. In the hot, dusty and bare landscape, Khajuraho emerges as an oasis. The shrines are distinctive in their elevation, most of them consisting of a series of joint structures rising up like mountain ridges, one after another, the lowermost point being the porch and the highest the sanctum. The gradual incline leads the eye up from the gateway to the mandapa roofs and the building’s shikhara, offering up, in a sense, the devotee’s soul to god. This exalting element is enhanced by the raising of these structures on high platforms rather as a precious stone would be set in a ring to display it to the best advantage.
Most of the locality’s temples have the ground plan of a cross with only one entrance from the east. In true Nagara fashion, they all possess a garba grha surrounded by the pradakshina path. The sancturary is entered through an antarala which follows a large mahamandapa (grand or main hall). Variations to this plan occur in the form of an entrance porch or ardhmandapa (half hall) and a mandapa intended for dancing or offering being sometimes added, much like the temples of Orissa. Some Khajuraho temples are panchayatana, with a special shrine devoted to the vehicle of the chief god. A striking feature of the structures is their oriel window, protruding out from the main structure like a balcony, and heavily carved. It provides light and air to the pradakshina Path and mahamandapa. Horizontal against the verticality of the shikhara, it casts deep shadows across the carvings. It also resembles very much the palace windows of Rajasthan. A Rajput princess appearing at such a balcony might be quite apropos.
The decoration covering every part of the temple exterior, and much of the interior, is as deliberate as the building’s plan. No flourish is an afterthought, every story depicted is essential to the desired design effect. The purpose at Khajuraho almost seems to have been for sculptors to record contemporary life for the benefit of future generations. Although there are bizarre theories for the existence of the detailed sexual carvings here, documentation of a way of life is perhaps the best explantion, the generations who built these temples probably being unfettered by the inhibitions that came to bind Indian society centuries later.
The plinth, reached by a high flight of stairs, was moulded, with nine, evenly spaced niches for the statues of Siva, Ganesha and the seven mother goddess, matrika-s (or sakti-s). Sakti also means female energy, the principle of life (see Kamaksha temple, Chapter 5). Ingeniously planned, the platform also projects out at the cardinal points, to match the oriel windows above. These exquisite balconies allow in just enough light to make visinle the sculptures in the garba grha.
One enters the extravagantly worked, rectangular portico and nave through a graceful carved torana, as if it were ivory, with figures of gorgons, gandharva-s and devas-s. The interior of the temple is as painstakingly carved as the outer areas. The chambers are elevated, as it were, by the airy and light, receding carvings on their coffered ceiling. In detail, they greatly resemble the fabulous marble Jaina temples of Mount Abu. The garba grha is also adorned at its entrance with carvings. Here ascetics meditate, the river goddess guard the lord of the mountains and stone flowers offer themselves to god. Framed by this richness is Shankara (Siva) as a marble linga. His abode is, as his Himalayan cave, dark and free of embellishment. In the peace and shade, the god rests, soothing worshippers by his silent, strong presence.
Around the sanctum runs decorated pradakshina path, its moulded plinth bearing figures of the ashtadikpala-s (eight guardian gods)- Indra, Agni, Yama, Nairita, Varuna, Vayu, Kubera and Isana-who guard Siva. Above these, set in the wall, are recesses for statues of each member of the holy trinity.
The three horizontal bands of sculpture on the walls are indented in places, projecting out in others, creating a sense of undulation throughout the building and heightening some sculptures with light while concealing others by the consequent shade. On a hot day, the building shimmers like a mirage. The multitude of deva-s, devi-s (goddesses) and voluptuous apsara-s -according to one account, 872 in all- on the walls, appear as lovers, dreamers and warriors. All the human and divine figures seem entranced, as if filled with an inner joy. Their eyes look beyond the viewer into some private heaven of their own. Even in the erotic sculptures, the ecstasy on the couples’s faces is more divine than earthly. Obviously, the creators of Khajuraho were not only highly skilled, trained, and deeply religious, but also well-versed in the Kama Sutra.
The external decoration also includes rows of reliefs over which lines of molding are carved. Beyond further bands of sculpture, miniature towers meet the central one. Above the temple which eloquently expresses both worldly and spiritual desires, the main shikhara of Kandariya Mahadeva rises up in a parabolic curve, in imitation of the jointed hands of a pilgrim doing a namaskar (attitude of prayer).
The exterior of the shrine displays various sthambha-s or positions from the kama Sutra and continues the Kandariya’s process of documenting Khajuraho life in scenes of wrestling matches, devotional groups, dances, elephants fight and the like. Inside, the lintel above the sanctum entrance is carved with figures of Brahma, rarely seen in Indian temples, and Lakshmi, flanked by two small altars. Further above this is a representation of the cosmos with the nava graha-s (nine planets). The carved door jambs present tableaux of the story of the churning of the ocean by the devas and the demons, as well as the incarnations of Vishnu. The sanctum’s image, framed in a torana, is of a four foot high, three-armed, four headed Vishnu. The central head is human while the other two represent his incarnations of Narasimha, the man-lion, and Varaha, the boar.
Compared to other temple sculptures, the story-telling element of those at Lakshmana is fascinating. Not only is the work unusual, but of the tales it tells are uncommon. The relief of Revanta is an example. The sun god, Surys. Is depicted all across India in temples either devoted to him or as subsidiary god. But this rare relief of Surya’s son, Revanta, on a horse, out for the day, boar hunting, brings a lesser known mythological character to life, placing him in the social context of the day.
Pious Hindus go to the eternal city to breathe their last for they believe that dying in the holy Kshetra of Varanasi, on the banks of the river Ganga, ensures for them a passage to heaven. This seems appropriate when one considers how often this city has ‘died’ but been reborn as sacred.
The temples of Varanasi have been razed to the ground repeatedly in its long and colourful history. Indeed, it is ironic and unfortunate that this temple town, whose shrines have been mentioned in ancient texts like the Purana-s should today possess 1,500 temples, yet not one which can definitely by attributed to the Pre-Mughal period. The lack of such ancient religious architecture has not reduced the fame of Varanasi nor lessened the fervour of its people. This ancient but ageless, crowded yet calm, noisy but serene place, is a tirtha for both Hindus and Jainas and an acclaimed centre of learning even in this century. The holy spirit of the town called Avimnktakshetra, Mahasmasana, Andavana and most recently Benares, is immortal.
The ancient Kingdom, Kashi, of which Benares was the capital, also gave its name to the city. However, it is now known by the two rivers that border it, the Varuna and the Asi Varanasi. This city of Ghat-s (steps or landing on a river) is unique, for here the Ganga, which has a south-eastern course, inexplicably turns northward.
The city’s patron god was Vishveshwar, Lord of the World. His shrine, the Visvanatha, existed at least as far back as the 7th century, for when the Chinese traveler Huen Tsang, came to the city, he called it an imposing structure with a spire of about 100 feet in height.’ Kutb-uddin Aibak supposedly razed about 100 temples in Varanasi in 1194 AD. Allaud-din Khilji and Ibrahim Lodhi followed suit. After the 1669 demolition of the Visvanatha temple, its sacred linga was kept hidden by the priests. When it was finally brought out for worship, it was moved from shrine ordered by the Maratha Maharani of Indore, Rani Ahilya Bai Holkar, a temple saviour of sorts, was complete.
The Visvanatha temple is small, with a sanctum only 10 square feet in area, its spire a mere 30 feet high. Its gilt covering was donated by Raja Ranjit Singh of the Punjab some years later. On the same estate is the Gyan Vapi mosque on the site where the original shrine had been.The building incorporated the walls of the older structure but part of its mandapa is still visible.
Benares, which had traditionally been one of the abodes of Siva, is replete with lore about the dark-skinned god. One tale recounts how one day Siva threw his mighty trishul (trident) to the ground and water spurted forth. The well of the visvanatha temple is said to have been dug on that holy spot. Of the hundreds of temples in varanasi, the most famous are the Kalabhairava, Annapurna, Sakshi-Vinayaka , the Bindu Madhava, and the temple of the monkeys. The first of these belongs to the guardian of the city and was located in the same compund as the Visvanatha in the 16th century. Today, it is an altogether different part of the city, thought he Annapurna and Sakshi Vinayaka are just a walk away.
The temple of the monkeys is, in reality, a shrine to Durga. The warrior goddess has been worshipped in the city since the 6th century AD. Once, when she laid down her sword, it is said the impression it made on the earth created the Asi river. An 11th century shrine to her was located near the Durga Kund, 100 yards from the same river. But the shrine that today stands there, was built by Rani Bhavani Bai of Natore, in the 18th century AD. The pilgrim going to Varanasi encounters a packed town with narrow streets and shrines at every turn. He is ‘expected to visit daily the Visvanatha, Bindu Madhava, Dhundi Raja and Durga temples’ and take a dip at any one of the ghat-s most built by Maratha rules or generals, along the Ganga. Of these, the most sacred are the Dasashvamedha, Panchganga andManikarnika, where at dawn pilgrims are seen bathing in the now-filthy waters upon which float remnants of the previous day’s pooja-flowers, leaves and fruit offered up to god-as the skyline of the city glows into sunrise.
Other highly revered tirtha sthana-s in India’s central basin include Ayodhya, the birthplace of Rama, with over 1,000 temples and now the site of sectarian controversy; the whole region around Mathura where Krishna was born about 3,500 years ago; and Vrundavan (in Uttrar Pradesh), the picturesque forest of tulsi or sacred basil where he cavorted with his playmates. The tulsi plant is revered by the Hindus and the town of Vrundavan gives its name to the basil stand found in the centre of the courtyard of traditional Hindu homes.
Mathura was renowned in ancient records as an important Buddhist centre of learning but is today visited by Krishna devotees for its associations with the god-the prison cell where he was born (now located in the Keshava Deo temple), the Potara tank where his nappies were washed and the Vishram (rest or repose) Ghat where he relaxed after killing his evil uncle, King Kansa. In Vrundavan, there are over 4,000 temples of varying antiquity, and probably even more windows, for they come here after the death of their husbands to escape brutality or indifference at the hands of relatives. They inhabit the town’s many dharamshala-s spending the rest of their lives shorn of hair and dressed in austere white, singing the praises of the divine prankster, Govind.
Govind is one of Krishna’s infinite names. Each signifies a particular aspect about him, his colouring, his playful nature, his exploits as a lover, his pursuits, his wisdom. Some of these name are shyam, Hari (also used to refer to God in general), Shridhar, Vanmali, Keshava, Madhava, Gopal, Giridhar, Mukund, and Govardham. Located further north is the temple town of Hardwar, called the Gateway or Door (dwar) to God (Hari), because of its proximity to the Himalayas, where the gods lived. It is also one of the four sacred spots in India where the nectar of immortality fell from the Kumbha (pot) of the gods. The others are Allahabad, Ujjain and Nasik. At these sites, the umbha Mela, a pilgrimage-festival, is held every three years.
Suhan Pal built the fort at the site of his healing and different dynasties ruled it over the centuries. Of historic note is the fact that the brave Rani Lakshmi Bai, queen of the neighbouring principality of Jhansi, who opposed British rule in India, fought her last battle and was killed here. Gwalior Fort houses not only the restored Teli ka Mandir but also several large rock-cut Jaina carvings, two reservoirs, the Sas-Bahu Mandir, and the Chaturbhuj shrine. This last is the earliest surviving temple in the fort. Dedicated to Vishnu, the temple of the four-armed god was hewn out of the rockface in 876 AD, but is important as a historic monument than an architectural one.
The 9th century Teli ka Mandir is the oldest surviving work of the Pratihara dynasty (8th to 10th century AD) and is therefore of considerable import. Resembling in character the Portuguese cathedrals of Bassein (an old settlement near Bombay, Maharashtra), it is an unusual structure combining consciously or unconsciously both the Dravida and Nagara styles of architecture. At a staggering height of 1,000feet, It appears squat due to its wagon or barrel shaped shikhara resemblinga gopuram (a Dravida temple’s towered gateway) or a vaulted church ceiling. Nonetheless, all its plentiful decorative detail is north Indian in origin. On either side of its round top, beneath which fits a horsehoe window, the shrine has sloping roofs, another uncommon feature in the region. It is unique in apperance and perhaps, therefore, falls to evoke the sense of solemnity that other temples do easily. The Sas-Bahu Mandir actually consists of two temples, one larger than the other. This difference in size gives the two their shared name of ‘The shrine of the Mother-in-law and Daughter-in-law’ drawing on the well-known unequal relationship that these women traditionally hold in Indian society of indeed, anywere in the word.
Situated at a scenic site on the eastern side of Gwalior Fort, overlooking the city on the plains, these otherwise twin shrines were started by Padmapala, a Kachhawaha Rajput prince and completed by his successor and brother. Mahipala, in 1093 AD. Commonly held to be Jain structures, they are in actuality, dedicated to Vishnu and are worth seeing for either ornate door, ceiling and pillar decorations.
The region, broadly known as central India, home of the Ganga and the Yamuna rivers, flowing down from the Himalayas, was well-watered and fertile. This was one of the reasons why not only civilization could take birth and prosper here but the seeds of Hinduism could germinate and blossom. It was also, almost continuously, the core around which empires flourished, the premier one being the Mauryan in the 3rd 4th centuries BC.
When its ruler, the famous Asoka; newly converted to Buddhism, advocated the use of stone for building, it was a crucial turning point in the history of Indian architecture. Prior to this era, builders used materials like timber, plaster, and brick, which explains why hardly any pre-Mauryan structures survise in India today. The next major impetus to the art of construction came from the Guptas (400-600 AD), who re-advocated the use of stone but on a larger scale and over a wider area. Although not many of their flat-roofed shrines survive (most extant examples are located in this prosperous Gangetic basin), they set a trend for construction that would lead to the evolution of the temple form.
The central province is a mini-representation of the entire nation with its varying climates, geography, races, cultures and religions. Little wonder then that its Hindu building tradition is complex and varied. The style of religious architecture, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina, that has developed in central India over the past 2,000 years and more, contains some of the most diverse and rich temples in the country. It outlines the evolution of the art from its earliest extant brick temple at Bhitargaon, to the pioneering Gupta rock edicts, pillars, and cave chaitya-s at Sanchi and Bodhgaya; from the highly developed tradition of Khajuraho and beyond to the later post Mughal structures built by Hindu princes in varanasi and Vrundavan. In the history of northern Hindu architecture, the regions that stand out as excellent examples of the Nagara (also called Indo-Aryan) style, are Rajasthan-Gujarat; Orissa; and Central India. Within this last are the renowned temples at Khajuraho, in the Bundelkhand district of Madhya pradesh. The three groups of temples at Khajuraho, famous foremost for their erotic sculptures which draw tourists from all over the world, in reality are the acme of expertise and refinement reached by medieval Nagara architects, after the rules and guidelines for construction had been evolved by their classical predecessors.
Khajuraho
Khajuraho is divine in the real sense of the word. Not because it is a city of temples, unequalled in elegance, intricacy, and beauty but because it was built by the chandela dynasty, whose founder is thought to have belonged to the family of sribrahmandmuni or Brahma, the holy creator of the unverse. The acclaimed Arab traveler of the 14th century, Ibn Batuta, recorded a fantastic description of Khajuraho in his memoirs. He saw the great capital of the Chandelas in 1335 AD, when he visited it during the reign of mahmud Shah Tuglaq. ‘There is a lake’ said Batura, at what he called Kajura, ‘about a mile in length, and around this lake are temples in which there are idols. At this place reside a tribe of jogi-s (mendicants) with long and matted hair. Their colour is yellow, which arises from their fasting. Many of the Muslims of these parts attend on them and learn magic from them.’ The earliest mention of the city, variously called Sri Khajuravahaka, Khajurapura and Khajjinpura, comes from Abu Rihan, who accompanied the invader, Mahmud of Ghazni to India in 1022 AD, and mentioned it as the capital of the Kingdom of Jijoti. Whether this was true or not is unknown. However, khajuraho certainly was large, as its ruins, covering eight square miles, show.According to legend, the main gateway to the town was ornamented with two golden palm trees, hence its name, ‘the place of the date palm.’ More likely, it derives from the preponderance of pala trees in the locality. A great annual fair was held here on the occasion of Mahasivaratri, the birthday of Lord Siva. The fair is one tradition that has apparently survived to the present time though very few pilgrims attend it now. The theory that a city once existed here makes a little more understandable the mystery of why the Chandelas, Staunch Saivites, created a fabulous array of intricate and erotic Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina temples in an otherwise unattractive location, absolutely off the beaten track. Where did the artisans come from who were their models How was such a large-scale project financed Few clues remain. Today Khajuraho is but a sleepy little town of some 6,000 people, 27 miles from Chhatarpur, situated at the south eastern corner of the Khajuraho Sagar or Nimora Tal that ibn Batuta wrote about. At the lake, only about 20 structures survive, from the 85 that supposedly once existed. Although many fell prey to time and lack of maintenance, Sultan Sikander Lodi is responsible for the destruction of the others in 1494-1495, only 500 years after their construction.
The temples, all built in the Indo-Aryan style between 950 and 1050 AD, indicate a continuous spate of activity in an already finely honed art rather than a stage of an evolutionary process. They are arranged in three groups; the western, eastern and southern, all but one being oriented north to south. The structures are externally very similar, built in granite or a combination of light coloured sandstone (imported from the Panna quarries) and granite. Since many of the idols of the main deities have been removed or defaced, it is often puzzling to distinguish which deity a temple was dedicated to. In the hot, dusty and bare landscape, Khajuraho emerges as an oasis. The shrines are distinctive in their elevation, most of them consisting of a series of joint structures rising up like mountain ridges, one after another, the lowermost point being the porch and the highest the sanctum. The gradual incline leads the eye up from the gateway to the mandapa roofs and the building’s shikhara, offering up, in a sense, the devotee’s soul to god. This exalting element is enhanced by the raising of these structures on high platforms rather as a precious stone would be set in a ring to display it to the best advantage.
Most of the locality’s temples have the ground plan of a cross with only one entrance from the east. In true Nagara fashion, they all possess a garba grha surrounded by the pradakshina path. The sancturary is entered through an antarala which follows a large mahamandapa (grand or main hall). Variations to this plan occur in the form of an entrance porch or ardhmandapa (half hall) and a mandapa intended for dancing or offering being sometimes added, much like the temples of Orissa. Some Khajuraho temples are panchayatana, with a special shrine devoted to the vehicle of the chief god. A striking feature of the structures is their oriel window, protruding out from the main structure like a balcony, and heavily carved. It provides light and air to the pradakshina Path and mahamandapa. Horizontal against the verticality of the shikhara, it casts deep shadows across the carvings. It also resembles very much the palace windows of Rajasthan. A Rajput princess appearing at such a balcony might be quite apropos.
The decoration covering every part of the temple exterior, and much of the interior, is as deliberate as the building’s plan. No flourish is an afterthought, every story depicted is essential to the desired design effect. The purpose at Khajuraho almost seems to have been for sculptors to record contemporary life for the benefit of future generations. Although there are bizarre theories for the existence of the detailed sexual carvings here, documentation of a way of life is perhaps the best explantion, the generations who built these temples probably being unfettered by the inhibitions that came to bind Indian society centuries later.
Western Group
Kandariya Mahadeva
The western group of temples, Saiva and Vaishnava in faith, is the best preserved at Khajuraho and is arranged in two rows. Each contains one large temple followed by smaller ones. The biggest, most lavish, and best known is the reddish-white Kandariya Mahadeva that has graced the covers of countless books on Indian temples. The proportions of Kandariya Mahadeva are impressive enough in themselves-the shrine is 102 feet long, 67 feet wide, with a tower 118 feet high. When the best possible planning and craftsmanship are added to this, small wonder that it is representative of this sophisticated group. Dedicated to Siva, the panchayatana shrine was built between 1025 AD. To day, only the main structure remains out of its original five. All were constructed on a high platform, though, of course, the subsidiary ones were much smaller in size and visually connected by long stone benches where pilgrims could rest a while.The plinth, reached by a high flight of stairs, was moulded, with nine, evenly spaced niches for the statues of Siva, Ganesha and the seven mother goddess, matrika-s (or sakti-s). Sakti also means female energy, the principle of life (see Kamaksha temple, Chapter 5). Ingeniously planned, the platform also projects out at the cardinal points, to match the oriel windows above. These exquisite balconies allow in just enough light to make visinle the sculptures in the garba grha.
One enters the extravagantly worked, rectangular portico and nave through a graceful carved torana, as if it were ivory, with figures of gorgons, gandharva-s and devas-s. The interior of the temple is as painstakingly carved as the outer areas. The chambers are elevated, as it were, by the airy and light, receding carvings on their coffered ceiling. In detail, they greatly resemble the fabulous marble Jaina temples of Mount Abu. The garba grha is also adorned at its entrance with carvings. Here ascetics meditate, the river goddess guard the lord of the mountains and stone flowers offer themselves to god. Framed by this richness is Shankara (Siva) as a marble linga. His abode is, as his Himalayan cave, dark and free of embellishment. In the peace and shade, the god rests, soothing worshippers by his silent, strong presence.
Around the sanctum runs decorated pradakshina path, its moulded plinth bearing figures of the ashtadikpala-s (eight guardian gods)- Indra, Agni, Yama, Nairita, Varuna, Vayu, Kubera and Isana-who guard Siva. Above these, set in the wall, are recesses for statues of each member of the holy trinity.
The three horizontal bands of sculpture on the walls are indented in places, projecting out in others, creating a sense of undulation throughout the building and heightening some sculptures with light while concealing others by the consequent shade. On a hot day, the building shimmers like a mirage. The multitude of deva-s, devi-s (goddesses) and voluptuous apsara-s -according to one account, 872 in all- on the walls, appear as lovers, dreamers and warriors. All the human and divine figures seem entranced, as if filled with an inner joy. Their eyes look beyond the viewer into some private heaven of their own. Even in the erotic sculptures, the ecstasy on the couples’s faces is more divine than earthly. Obviously, the creators of Khajuraho were not only highly skilled, trained, and deeply religious, but also well-versed in the Kama Sutra.
The external decoration also includes rows of reliefs over which lines of molding are carved. Beyond further bands of sculpture, miniature towers meet the central one. Above the temple which eloquently expresses both worldly and spiritual desires, the main shikhara of Kandariya Mahadeva rises up in a parabolic curve, in imitation of the jointed hands of a pilgrim doing a namaskar (attitude of prayer).
Lakshmana
The Lakshmana ji ka mandir is, funnily enough, not dedicated to Rama’s brother of the same name. But how this shrine got its name is unclear as it is undoubtedly Vishnu’s. It is known for the superior quality of its reliefs and an unusual shrine with its carving of a guru (teacher) and his sisya-s (students). Although similar in design to its neighbour, the Kandariya Mahadeva, the Lakshmana is smaller in scale yet appears more spread-out in elevation than the sharply rising Kandariya. Ninety eight feet long and 45 feet wide, it has five bays, traditional oriel windows, and an exquisitely carved, cusuped torana.The exterior of the shrine displays various sthambha-s or positions from the kama Sutra and continues the Kandariya’s process of documenting Khajuraho life in scenes of wrestling matches, devotional groups, dances, elephants fight and the like. Inside, the lintel above the sanctum entrance is carved with figures of Brahma, rarely seen in Indian temples, and Lakshmi, flanked by two small altars. Further above this is a representation of the cosmos with the nava graha-s (nine planets). The carved door jambs present tableaux of the story of the churning of the ocean by the devas and the demons, as well as the incarnations of Vishnu. The sanctum’s image, framed in a torana, is of a four foot high, three-armed, four headed Vishnu. The central head is human while the other two represent his incarnations of Narasimha, the man-lion, and Varaha, the boar.
Compared to other temple sculptures, the story-telling element of those at Lakshmana is fascinating. Not only is the work unusual, but of the tales it tells are uncommon. The relief of Revanta is an example. The sun god, Surys. Is depicted all across India in temples either devoted to him or as subsidiary god. But this rare relief of Surya’s son, Revanta, on a horse, out for the day, boar hunting, brings a lesser known mythological character to life, placing him in the social context of the day.
Chausat Yogini
The 64 Yogini-s (priestesses) who give this temple its name, are the attendants of Kali (or Durga) and were housed in an unusual temple open to the sky. It was built in 900 AD and is situated on a rocky ledge east of the Shiv Sagar or ‘Lake of Siva.’ This place of worship, perhaps belonging to a Tantric cult, is unlike the rest of the Khajuraho structures. It is formed of 65 cells, topped by small shikhara-s and chaitya-style windows, on the periphery of an oblong courtyard. Today, only 35 are standing. All but one are the same size and were meant to hold images of Yogini-s. They probably had wooden doors to protect the idols. The larger altar in the middle of the south-western wall faces the entrance and was, according to some sources, intended for the image of Kali. Others claim it for Siva Bhairava. There are currently three deities placed in it, one of Mahishasuramardini (another name for Kali, who killed the demon Mahishasura), and two retrieved from the subsidiary shrines and representing the mother goddesses, Brahmani and maheshwari.Mtangeshvara
The only live Hindu temple of Khajurajo, Matangeshwara is sacred to the royal family of the area and the other inhabitants. The east-facing temple, studded with oriel windows, stands close to the Lakshmana. Its unique feature is the large yoni (the female symbol-the counterpart of the linga or phallic symbol), four feet high, set in the floor of its garba grha. Twenty feet in diameter, it holds a highly polished linga, eight feet tall and three feet wide.Eastern Group
The Eastern group of Khakuraho temples consists mostly of the Jaina shrines-the Parsvanatha, Adinatha, Shanti Natha, and Ghantai- built by the religiously tolerant Chandelas. There is also a collection of minor Hindu temples like the Javari, Varmana, Brahma and Hanuman. Of these, the first three are devoted to Vishnu, the Vamana being dedicted to his dwarf incarnation, and the sandstone and granite Brahma temple, one of the oldest at Khajuraho, being erroneously named. Hanuman, the monkey god and faithful aide of Rama, was once widely worshipped in north India (he is still highly revered in the state of Maharashtra). The Hanuman temple contains an eight foot depiction of him, dated 922 AD.Southern Group
Only two temples remain of this southern group-the Chaturbhuj and the Duladeo, the former housing a massive image of Vishnu, the latter probably the last shrine to be built here. The Duladeo is a Siva shrine but the name means the ‘Holy Bridegroom’. The story goes that a bridal procession was passing the temple when the groom died at its door and turned into a god. The small, graceful, five-chambered temple possesses some of the famous Khajuraho erotic carvings but it is felt to be not as well constructed as its predecessors.Varanasi
Jagannatha-Gangalahari (17th century)Pious Hindus go to the eternal city to breathe their last for they believe that dying in the holy Kshetra of Varanasi, on the banks of the river Ganga, ensures for them a passage to heaven. This seems appropriate when one considers how often this city has ‘died’ but been reborn as sacred.
The temples of Varanasi have been razed to the ground repeatedly in its long and colourful history. Indeed, it is ironic and unfortunate that this temple town, whose shrines have been mentioned in ancient texts like the Purana-s should today possess 1,500 temples, yet not one which can definitely by attributed to the Pre-Mughal period. The lack of such ancient religious architecture has not reduced the fame of Varanasi nor lessened the fervour of its people. This ancient but ageless, crowded yet calm, noisy but serene place, is a tirtha for both Hindus and Jainas and an acclaimed centre of learning even in this century. The holy spirit of the town called Avimnktakshetra, Mahasmasana, Andavana and most recently Benares, is immortal.
The ancient Kingdom, Kashi, of which Benares was the capital, also gave its name to the city. However, it is now known by the two rivers that border it, the Varuna and the Asi Varanasi. This city of Ghat-s (steps or landing on a river) is unique, for here the Ganga, which has a south-eastern course, inexplicably turns northward.
The city’s patron god was Vishveshwar, Lord of the World. His shrine, the Visvanatha, existed at least as far back as the 7th century, for when the Chinese traveler Huen Tsang, came to the city, he called it an imposing structure with a spire of about 100 feet in height.’ Kutb-uddin Aibak supposedly razed about 100 temples in Varanasi in 1194 AD. Allaud-din Khilji and Ibrahim Lodhi followed suit. After the 1669 demolition of the Visvanatha temple, its sacred linga was kept hidden by the priests. When it was finally brought out for worship, it was moved from shrine ordered by the Maratha Maharani of Indore, Rani Ahilya Bai Holkar, a temple saviour of sorts, was complete.
The Visvanatha temple is small, with a sanctum only 10 square feet in area, its spire a mere 30 feet high. Its gilt covering was donated by Raja Ranjit Singh of the Punjab some years later. On the same estate is the Gyan Vapi mosque on the site where the original shrine had been.The building incorporated the walls of the older structure but part of its mandapa is still visible.
Benares, which had traditionally been one of the abodes of Siva, is replete with lore about the dark-skinned god. One tale recounts how one day Siva threw his mighty trishul (trident) to the ground and water spurted forth. The well of the visvanatha temple is said to have been dug on that holy spot. Of the hundreds of temples in varanasi, the most famous are the Kalabhairava, Annapurna, Sakshi-Vinayaka , the Bindu Madhava, and the temple of the monkeys. The first of these belongs to the guardian of the city and was located in the same compund as the Visvanatha in the 16th century. Today, it is an altogether different part of the city, thought he Annapurna and Sakshi Vinayaka are just a walk away.
The temple of the monkeys is, in reality, a shrine to Durga. The warrior goddess has been worshipped in the city since the 6th century AD. Once, when she laid down her sword, it is said the impression it made on the earth created the Asi river. An 11th century shrine to her was located near the Durga Kund, 100 yards from the same river. But the shrine that today stands there, was built by Rani Bhavani Bai of Natore, in the 18th century AD. The pilgrim going to Varanasi encounters a packed town with narrow streets and shrines at every turn. He is ‘expected to visit daily the Visvanatha, Bindu Madhava, Dhundi Raja and Durga temples’ and take a dip at any one of the ghat-s most built by Maratha rules or generals, along the Ganga. Of these, the most sacred are the Dasashvamedha, Panchganga andManikarnika, where at dawn pilgrims are seen bathing in the now-filthy waters upon which float remnants of the previous day’s pooja-flowers, leaves and fruit offered up to god-as the skyline of the city glows into sunrise.
Gaya, Ayodhya. Mathura. Vrundavan. Haridwar
Not far from kashi, are two sacred sites in Bihar-Bodhgaya of the Buddhists and Gaya of the Hindus. The former is worshipped as the site where Gautama Buddha received enlightenment , the latter is a tirtha with special purifying powers for sinners. Here pilgrims come to lay the restless spirits of ancestors to rest and to see the extraordinary foot of Vishnu, imprinted in solid rock and measuring 40 centimeters in length ( see also Vishnupaad temple, Pandhararpur, Chapter 7). It is worshipped at Gaya’s Vishnuppad (Vishnu’s foot) temple, built in 1787, under the patronage of the generous temple-building queen, Ahilya Bai. She was responsible for the construction of scores of shrines, like those at Varanasi and Pandharpur, across India.Other highly revered tirtha sthana-s in India’s central basin include Ayodhya, the birthplace of Rama, with over 1,000 temples and now the site of sectarian controversy; the whole region around Mathura where Krishna was born about 3,500 years ago; and Vrundavan (in Uttrar Pradesh), the picturesque forest of tulsi or sacred basil where he cavorted with his playmates. The tulsi plant is revered by the Hindus and the town of Vrundavan gives its name to the basil stand found in the centre of the courtyard of traditional Hindu homes.
Mathura was renowned in ancient records as an important Buddhist centre of learning but is today visited by Krishna devotees for its associations with the god-the prison cell where he was born (now located in the Keshava Deo temple), the Potara tank where his nappies were washed and the Vishram (rest or repose) Ghat where he relaxed after killing his evil uncle, King Kansa. In Vrundavan, there are over 4,000 temples of varying antiquity, and probably even more windows, for they come here after the death of their husbands to escape brutality or indifference at the hands of relatives. They inhabit the town’s many dharamshala-s spending the rest of their lives shorn of hair and dressed in austere white, singing the praises of the divine prankster, Govind.
Govind is one of Krishna’s infinite names. Each signifies a particular aspect about him, his colouring, his playful nature, his exploits as a lover, his pursuits, his wisdom. Some of these name are shyam, Hari (also used to refer to God in general), Shridhar, Vanmali, Keshava, Madhava, Gopal, Giridhar, Mukund, and Govardham. Located further north is the temple town of Hardwar, called the Gateway or Door (dwar) to God (Hari), because of its proximity to the Himalayas, where the gods lived. It is also one of the four sacred spots in India where the nectar of immortality fell from the Kumbha (pot) of the gods. The others are Allahabad, Ujjain and Nasik. At these sites, the umbha Mela, a pilgrimage-festival, is held every three years.
Gwalior
The royal city of Gwalior in Madya Pradesh, famous for its fort and its Teli ka Mandir (the oilman’s temple), is named after the hermit Gwalipa. Local lore has it tht Gwalipa lived where the hill fort now stands. The legendary founder of the city, prince Suraj Sen, suffered from leprosy. Gwalipa apparently cured him of it by giving him miraculous water to drink from a tank, now called Suraj Kund, outside his hut. He also gave the prince a new name, Suhan Pal, and told him that as long as his descendants used that surname, they would remain in power.Suhan Pal built the fort at the site of his healing and different dynasties ruled it over the centuries. Of historic note is the fact that the brave Rani Lakshmi Bai, queen of the neighbouring principality of Jhansi, who opposed British rule in India, fought her last battle and was killed here. Gwalior Fort houses not only the restored Teli ka Mandir but also several large rock-cut Jaina carvings, two reservoirs, the Sas-Bahu Mandir, and the Chaturbhuj shrine. This last is the earliest surviving temple in the fort. Dedicated to Vishnu, the temple of the four-armed god was hewn out of the rockface in 876 AD, but is important as a historic monument than an architectural one.
The 9th century Teli ka Mandir is the oldest surviving work of the Pratihara dynasty (8th to 10th century AD) and is therefore of considerable import. Resembling in character the Portuguese cathedrals of Bassein (an old settlement near Bombay, Maharashtra), it is an unusual structure combining consciously or unconsciously both the Dravida and Nagara styles of architecture. At a staggering height of 1,000feet, It appears squat due to its wagon or barrel shaped shikhara resemblinga gopuram (a Dravida temple’s towered gateway) or a vaulted church ceiling. Nonetheless, all its plentiful decorative detail is north Indian in origin. On either side of its round top, beneath which fits a horsehoe window, the shrine has sloping roofs, another uncommon feature in the region. It is unique in apperance and perhaps, therefore, falls to evoke the sense of solemnity that other temples do easily. The Sas-Bahu Mandir actually consists of two temples, one larger than the other. This difference in size gives the two their shared name of ‘The shrine of the Mother-in-law and Daughter-in-law’ drawing on the well-known unequal relationship that these women traditionally hold in Indian society of indeed, anywere in the word.
Situated at a scenic site on the eastern side of Gwalior Fort, overlooking the city on the plains, these otherwise twin shrines were started by Padmapala, a Kachhawaha Rajput prince and completed by his successor and brother. Mahipala, in 1093 AD. Commonly held to be Jain structures, they are in actuality, dedicated to Vishnu and are worth seeing for either ornate door, ceiling and pillar decorations.
