Later Temples of the South
"All the pillars of the Parthenon are identical, while no two facets of the Indian temple are the same; every convolution of every scroll is different. No two canopies in the whole building are alike, and every part exhibits a joyous exuberance of fancy scorning every mechanical restraint. All that is wild in human faith and warm in human feeling is found portrayed on these walls."
In Kerala they built temples along the palm fringed shores of the Arabian Sea. A highly cosmopolitan land where traders from Arabia and Rome arrived at the ports of Allepey and Cochin looking for pepper and teakwood. Moving northwards there is Karnataka where among the boulder strewn hillside the magnificent kingdom of vijayanagar rose whose kings spread their generous patronage to temples all across the south. The craftsmen working for the kings of the Hoysala dynasty turned the craft of religious sculpture into an evolved form of art at Belur and Halebid. Then moving further northward to the Deccani land of Andhra Pradesh wer come to what is probably the most popular temple in the country- the hilltop shrine dedicated to Balaji at Tirumala- Tirupati.
Chennakesava means the handsome long-haired god and the Channakesave temple at Belur is dedicated to Vishnu incarnated as Krishna. The temple was begun in 1116 by the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhan and took 103 years to complete. And even today Lord Chennakesava receives the worship of people in this temple. The Hoysaleswara temple at Halebid, dedicated to Shiva, was started by the same king but left incomplete after 180 years of labour. The floor plans of the Hoysala temples are very different from those of the Pallava or Chola buildings. The layout is star-shaped and the structure is flat on top without any towering vimanas or gopuram. The most intricate carvings on the walls of a temple can be found at these Hoysala temple that are still in a good state of preservation. The carvings are even finer and more precisely chiseled than the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu. One reason is the use of the soft soapstone that gradually hardens with the passage of time. The subjects of the carvings are the traditional ones of gods and goddesses, celestial maidens, dwarfs and demons. It is the quality of the execution that gives Belur and Halebid their uniqueness. It appears as if the figures were chieselled on wood or ivory rather than stone.
The texture that has been acheved is of the fragile intricacy of lace or a weave of threads with supple vines and flowers curving around figures of goddess wearing jewellery and garments carved in amazingly delicate detail. There is this dazzling virtuosity of detail and with it also an exuberance of dancing apsaras and a frieze of parades and animals that seem to be alive with movement. The canopices over the figures are pierced and scalloped and the domed ceilings are supported by pillars covered with ornamentation. The Hoysala carvings do not have the majestic power of Pallava or Chola work. Instead there is a sensitive, Iyrical quality that is like poetry frozen in stone.
Vijayanagar was abandoned by its people in 1565 and never rose again. Today the ruins of palaces, temples and pavilions stand like beautiful ghosts among the boulders and hills, their rages shadows falling across the waters of the Tungabhadra. All that remains of a magnificent kingdom is the tiny village of Hampi. In Hampi only one temple is still a living shrine, all the others have lost their deities. The images of gods and demons, dwarapalas and apsaras lie in pieces in their courtyards.
At vijayanagar we see the final flowering of temple architecture and sculpture in the south. Every element from the fopurams to the amman shrines and the ranga mandapas can be seen here covered with a profusion of carvings. The most eyecatching are the pillars with rearing horses with riders and the mythical lion like creature called the yali. The Hazara Rama temple stands in the royal enclosure and was probably the personal chapel of the royal family. Most of the kings of Vijayanagar were Vaishnavas and this temple is dedicated to Vishnu’s eighth incarnation, Lord Rama. The carvings on the outer walls depictmany episodes from the life of Lord Rama. The Mahamandapa has four black stone pillars with a finely chiseled bas relief of Vishnu, the goddess Mahishamardinin and Hanuman. Vijayanagar’s main bazaar was a wide avenue with a row of cloisters for shops on both sides. At one end of this avenue rises the Matanga hill and at the other is the soaring gopuram of the Virupaksha Temple, the only living shrine in Hampi. It is alos called the Pampapati temple as the Tungabhadra is also called the goddess Pampa. The river goddess had performed a long and arduous penance to gain the favour of Shiva who finally came down from heaven and married her in the form of Virupaksha. The Virupaksha temple has two courtyards and the tallest gopuram rises to a height of 50 metres. Krishna Deva Raya built the ornate ranga mandapa and one of the smaller gopurams. Krishna Deva Raya began building the Vitthala temple by the river but it was probably not consecrated. Vitthala is another name of Vishnu and he is worshipped in this form at pandharpur in Maharashtra. It is the most elegantly planned and gracefully executed temple in Hampi. The open pavilion of the mahamandapa has pillars created by a cluster of slender columnettes that the guides claim are musical pillars. The ornate ranga mandapa is most decoratively carved and once had a brilliantly coloured ceiling and pillars. A beautifully carved stone replica of a wooden temple chariot stands before the door of the mahamandapa and once held an image of Vishnu’s bird, Garuda.
Madurai finds mention in the chronicles of travelers in ancient India. Ptolemy and Strabo mention Madurai, and megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya has described the legendary riches of the city in the 4th century B.C. Madurai stood on the terminus of the Spice Route, trading in pepper, silk, ivory and pearls. And the ships of the rich merchants of the city bought back the finest Italian wines, eye shadow and perfume, silverware and pretty female slave-musicians. Even in this century Roman coins have been found around Madurai and an embassy from the city was received in the court of Nero in Rome. Such a prosperous city naturally built temples to rival the best in the region. It was the capital of the Pandyan dynasty from the 6th to the 10th century. Then it was a part of the Vijayanagar Empire. When Vijayanagar disintegerated, their viceroys, the Nayakas, declared independence and established their own kingdoms. The old city of Madurai was invaded and destroyed by Malik Kafur, a general of the Sultan of Delhi and most of the present city was built in the 16th century during the Nayaka period, especially during the reign of King Tirumala Nayaka.
As the capital of the Nayaka kings Madurai was also the cultural heart of the region. Literary conferences called Sangams were held here and some of the greatest Tamil classics like Shilappadikaram wre composed at this time. It was said that the manuscript of any new writing was put on the water of the Golden Lotus tank of the temple and the good works floated and the bad ones prombtly sank. Even today Madurai is a centre of handicrafts, especially of cotton and silk weaving.
Like all ancient places of pilgrimages, Madurai has amyth for every hill and river and temple. The cityis said to have been built by an ancient Pandyan king at the site where Indra worshipped Shiva. The king could not think of a name for the city till he dreamt of the nectar falling from Shiva’s hair. So he named his city Madhurapura, the ‘sweet place’, and from this was derived the name Madurai. There are two hills called Yanai Malai, the Elephant Hill and Naga Malai, the Snake Hill on the outskirts of the city. Shiva turned an evil elephant into rock when it tried to trample the Brahmins of Madurai. And the Vaigai river was created by Lord Sundareshwara to quench the thirst of a guest at his wedding, a dwarf who had eaten a mountain of rice.
Built by the Nayaka king Tirumala, even today the true heart of the city is the Meenakshi-Sundareshwara temple. Meenakshi means the fish-eyed goddess, a concept of beauty in traditional India. She and her husband Sundareshwara are said to have ruled ancient Madurai. The story of Meenakshi begins with King Malayadhwaja and Queen Kanchanmala performing a yagnja to pray for a son and Meenakshi was born out of the fire. An incarnate of parvati, the Pandyan princess was born with three breasts. The astrologers predicted that the third breast would disappear when Meenakshi Would Meet her husband. At her father’s death the militant princess became the ruler and began an expedition of conquests. When she reached the Himalayas she came into conflict with gods. When Shiva came to the battlefield to fight, Meenakshi’s third breast vanished. Shiva told her to return to Madurai and waitfor him. He arrived eight days later as Sundareshwara, the Handsome Lord, and married Meenkshi. The two ruled Madurai as king and queen. The temple is dedicated to both of them and each has a shrine but is it Meenakshi who still finds a special place in the hearts of the people. Warriot princess, queen and goddess, she is simply Amman to her devotees and they come to the temple of their divine mother believing she is the most generous of all the deities and that if you ask with faith and a clear heart your prayers will certainly be answered.
As befitting the Lord, Sundareshwara has the larger shrine but is is Meenakshi who isalways worshipped first. The two temples are called the Amman and Swamy Koyil and stand within the innermost of four enclosures. Both the temple have a garba griha, an ardha mandapa, a mahamandapa and pradakshina corridors encircling the sanctum. The temples have small but intricately carved shikharas gilded with gold.
The main immovable image of Meenakshi is a standing image of the goddess in green stone and Shiva is worshipped as a lingam. These are the mulamurt is and both deities have movable festival images of bronze called utsava murti. These images are also worshipped with the mulamurtis. Meenakshi’s utsava murti shows her along but Sundareshwara is in a Somaskanda form, sitting with the goddess Uma and with their son Skanda in the middle. This reflects the common depiction of the two deities in the South. The goddess is active as she symbolizes shakti, power and energy. Shiva is normally a passive god unless combined with the shakti of the goddess.
The enclosures have twelve gopurams and the four tallest ones still dominate the skyline of the city. These gopurams have been restored, teeming with plaster figures painted in bright colours. The tallest, the south gopuram. Is 9 storeys high and has over 1500 figures. The temple is a city within a city with many halls, a tank, shrines to other gods, offices, refectories, even an art gallery and a museum. Shops line the Ashta Shati mandapa at the entrance, selling garlands, incense, trinkets, sandalwood and vermilion. The corridors leading into the shrines and the many halls have some fine examples of the sculpture of the Vijayanagar and Nayaka periods. The Mangammal hall has ceilings painted with the story of the marriage of Meenakshi. The thousand-pillar hall is a forest of pillars. Carved from a single block of granite they capture every aspect of the pageantry of life. A dazzling panorama ofprancing horses and strange lion-like beasts, deities and indolent apsaras, dancers and musicians.
The finest sculptures are the free standing figures showing the marriage of Meenakshi and Sundareshwara. Here Vishnu as Meenakshi’s brother is shown giving the bride away and the posture of the figures, with Vishnu pouring water over the clasped hands of the bride and groom can still be seen in Hindu weddings all across the land. Also, standing against the pillars are the full sized sculpted images of the Nayaka patrons of the temple. The Golden Lotus tank within the temple is said to mark the spot where Indra worshipped Shiva and picked golden lotuses for the puja. The tank is surrounded by a collonade and is a serene corner of the temple complex with the reflection of the southern gopuram falling on its still waters and people bathing by the steps.
The temple is always crowede with pilgrims, the air filled with music and chanting, bells and trumpets and many weddings are held on auspicious days. There are a dozen important festivals at the temple when Meenakshi with her divine bridegroom, and at other times alson, rides out on a chariot to visit the town. The colourful processions are lit by torches and led by drummers and musicians playing the nadaswaram with a phalanx of ambling elephants behind them. Priests carry parasols and other symbols of royalty and other gods like Ganesha and Subrahmanya join the parade in their own chariots. At one time the devadasis of the temple used to lead these processions.
The Chittirai festival held in April recreated the marriage of Meenakshi and Sundareshwara, with Vishnu accompanying the bride. The excited crowds celebrate like they would a wedding in their family. In the Teppam festival the divine couple are taken in procession to the Teppakkulam tank for a delightful night- time boatride in a barge sparkling with lights, tinsel and flowers. In Madurai the great romance of Meenakshi and her Handsome Lord is a living celebration even today.
Ravana, who was a Brahmin and a scholar, was a great devotee of Shiva and Durga, whose many blessings had made him invincible in battle. So before the battle Rama worshipped Durga here, praying for her support. This Durga puja is still celebrated every autumn in Bengal and it is the time of the nine auspicious days of Navaratri in the rest of the country. Rama was triumphant in war and returned to Rameswaram with Sita and then once again decided to do a yagnja to atone for the sin of killing Ravana, a Brahmin. He sent Hanuman to Mount Kailash to get a shivalingam for the ceremony.
On the auspicious day everything was ready for the yagnja, the sacred hour was passing but Hanuman had still not arrived. So Sita created a lingam with sand and this was worshipped. Poor Hanuman hurrying back from the Himalayas with the crystal Akasha lingam was deeply disappointed to find the yaganja over. Noticing his sadness Rama installed both the lingams in the temple he built at Rameswaram. So at the Ramanathaswami temple Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, worships Shiva and there are two lingams in the garba griha- the Ramanatha lingam created by Sita and the Vishwa lingam that was brought by Hanuman. The vishwa lingam is also one of the ten, self- manifest jyotirlingams.
Dated to the 12th century, the present Ramanathaswami temple stands beside a lake and is said to have taken three centuries to build. Suprisingly, the inspiration for building the temple came from a prince of Sri Lanka. The temple is in the traditional Dravidian style with a nine- storey gopuram and a number of sacred tanks. What is unique in this temple is the corridot that encircles the garbagriha that stretches for a distance of 1240 metres and is the longest corridor in the country. It is designed as a row of pillars carved out of single blocks of granite and a beautifully painted ceiling. Walking down the dim stretches of the corridor, with stray rays of sunlight filtering in and an endless line of pillars stretching into the distance, is a visually stunning experience.
There are other temples on the isaland like the Kodandaraswamy temple where vibhishana, the brother of Ravana came to join Rama. It stands ar Dhanushkodi where the waters of the Bay of Bengal merge into the Indian Ocean and pilgrims bathe in the sea as Rama once did. Also, there are the Gandhamadan Parvatam, Darbha Sayanam and Adi Jagannatha temples, all of which are connected to various episodes during Rama’s tow visits to the isaland.
The town of guruvayur is called the Dwarka of the south and this is because of the famous deity that stands in the Sri Krishna temple there. Here a deity of Vishnu is worshipped as Krishna and the god is known as Guruvayurappan, and the deity is said to be thousands of years old. The Narada Purana says that the deity was first given to Krishana’s father Vasudv by Lord Brahma and it was also worshipped by Krishna at Dwarka. In his last days when Krishna decided to retire from Dwarka he gave the idol to Uddhava as his ole friend and adviser was so despondent at Krishna leaving him.
After Krishna’s death when the sea claimed Dwarka the deity was brought to Kerala by Brihaspati, the guru of the gods and Vayu, the Lord of Air. As they wandered about seeking a sanctified place they were guided by Parasuram to a lake filled with lotuses. They found Shiva meditating by the waters and because of this the temple tank is called Rudra Tirtha after Shiva. In this way Vishnu Krishna came to Guruvayur, a place already sanctifies by Shiva. The temple architecture of the region has all the elements of a traditional layout but the style of building is different from the standard Dravidian one. The most noticeable difference is the tiered, pagoda style roof of the 19th century temple. The auspicious eastern gopuram is called the Bhuloka Vaikuntham and in the outer enclosure there is a 33 metre high flagpost, the dhwajasthambha flanked by two deepasthambhas, pillars of lamps. At night when the lamps on these dipasthambhas arelit, they shimmer with hundreds of dancing points of flame. The main temple is called Srikoyil and the deity in the garbha griha is a traditional four- armed image of Vishnu. Made of a rare stone called Patala Ajanam it shows Vishnu With his shankha, chakra, gada and padma. The Lord wears many jewels and garlands of tulsi and perals. The walls of the Srikoyil are painted with stories from the life of Krishna and the pjua is conducted by Nambudri Brahmins. The pradakshina patha encircling the garba griha is called Nalambalam. The temple also has shrines of the consort goddess. Edatharikathu Kavil Bhagavati and of Saraswati and Ganesha.
Guruvayur is a centre for the performance of the Krishnattam dance-dramas and the temple processions are a glittering display of pageantry, one of the most colourful in the region. The festival images, the utsava vigrahs, is placed on a golden throne and then carried on elephant back, escorted by a swaying phalanx of elephants caparisoned in silks and gold. Priests carry huge parasols and fans, musicians play trumpets, drums and gongs, the sky is lit with fireworks and as devotees raise their voices in chants of praise, Lord Guruvayurappan takes a ride along his kingdom. Among the important festivals are the Ekadashi in November- December, the Utsavam in February- March and the puram festival in April- May. In every festival the most eyecatching sight are the forty elephants bedecked in gold that come from Lord Guruvaurappan’s personal elephant stables in the fort at punnathur Kotta.
The Guruvayur temple is one of the most popular and richest temples in South India. The deity is believed to be a kind, forgiving and generous god and devotees often offer the ritual of Tulabharam here. Devotees promise various things ranging from coconuts and bananas to silver equal to their own body weight if their prayers are answered. Like the Meenakshi temple in Madurai this temple is also a venue for marriage ceremonies.
Many devotees prefer to walk up the hill, a distance of 16 kilometres and the temple enclosure covers all the area on top of the hill, an area of 4 square kilometers. The temple was originally built in the 10th century but it has been renovated many times since then, with a new gopuram built recently. With the burgeoning popularity has come newer buildings to cope with the huge influx of visitors. Now the temple has three enclosure with gopurams, many smaller shrines, offices, stores, kitchens and mandapas. The vimana of the main temple called the Ananda Nilayam has a solid gold shikhara.
Venkateshwara- Balaji is probably the most familiar deity in South India. His image on calendars and photographs graces the walls of homes, offices and shops. The icon is a two metre tall image of Vishnu and is called by many names- Venkateshwara, Balaji, Venkatanatha, Srinivasa and Perumal. It is made of black stone and stands on a lotus. The two upper arms carry the shankha or conch and the chakra or discus. But instead of the lotus and mace usually seen in Vishnu’s other hands, the lower right hand is turned in a varadanamudra, the gesture of blessing and the lower left hand turned inwards towards the body. The eyes of the image are covered with a broad, triangular, white tilaka. It is said that the eyes are so beautiful that if the devotees could see them they would never want to leave. Another reason given for covering the eyes is that if they were uncovered they would scorch the earth with their power. This tilaka is called the Ramanuja tilaka and the puja in the temple is conducted by Brahmins who hail from the sage Ramanujacharya. They conduct the rituals along the guidelines laid down by him.
There are some other deities in the garba griha. The Bhoga Srinivasa is a silver replica of the main Balaji image. The Malai Kuniya Nenran Perumal is the itsava murti that is taken out in procession. The image of the consort goddess Alarmelamangai Nachiyar, a form of Lakshmi, is carved on the chest of Balaji and the images of Bhu Devi, the earth goddess and Shri Devi, the goddess of wealth stand next to him. The image is adorned with precious gems, gold and silver and very little of Balaji is visible under the layers of jewellery and flowers. The tall gold and diamond crown is said to be the single most valuable piece of jewellery in the world. The deity weats a garland of gold coins and even the two lower hands are covered with gold and diamonds. Balaji also wears an emerald called Meru Pacha, that is among the biggest emeralds in the world and he rides in a solid gold palanquin during the festivals.
The legendary jewellery and the wealth of the temple comes from the faith of people in Balaji’s power at ansering prayers and bringing good fortune. Kings like Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagar came to thank Balaji for his blessings. He presented the deity with a jewel studded crown, a necklace of perals and silver plates. On later visits he presented a sword decorated with diamonds, rubies and sapphires and after a great victory he covered Balaji with thirty thousand gold coins. The images of the king and his two queens stand in the first mandapa of the temple.
The temple layout is the traditional one with a gopuram leading into the enclosures. The festivals are held in the Ranga Mandapa, the Annaunjal and Tirumalaraya halls. The second enclosure has shrines to Varadaraja, Narasimha and Ramanujacharya. The entrance to the sanctum is guarded by the two dwarapalas, Jaya and Vijaya. The Varahaswami temple stands next to the Swamil Pushkarini tank and there is a small museum nearby. The most important festival is the Brahmotsavam, a celebration of Brahma descending to earth worship Balani. During this festival there is a Rathotsava when the deity is taken out in procession. Also, there is the day when Balaji is put behind gold bars because he is said to have borrowed money from Kubera, the god of wealth and his descendents come asking the Lord to repay the loan. On this day devotees make huge offerings to rescue Balaji from this dilemma. During pushpayagam, the flower festival over two tons of flowers in thrity varieties are offered to the deity.
With an average arrival of 25, 000 pilgrims daily and over a lakh people crowding the precincts during festivals the temple generates an income said to touch 500 crore rupees a year. The Tirumala temple has a temple staff of 6000 and its own administration, the Tirupati Tirumala Devasthanam. It runs a gigantic enterprise that offers free food and shelter to pilgrims and manges the crowds during the religious ceremonies and festivals. The Devasthanam has ploughed much of the income of the temple into charities and it runs schools, colleges, orphanages and hospitals. As people often shave their heads here as a vow, the barbers generate a substantial income form the sale of the hair for wigs. And laddus, as prasada, are prepared in thousands in the huge temple Kitchen. Lord Balaji- Venkateshwara is a truly generous and caring deity.
In Kerala they built temples along the palm fringed shores of the Arabian Sea. A highly cosmopolitan land where traders from Arabia and Rome arrived at the ports of Allepey and Cochin looking for pepper and teakwood. Moving northwards there is Karnataka where among the boulder strewn hillside the magnificent kingdom of vijayanagar rose whose kings spread their generous patronage to temples all across the south. The craftsmen working for the kings of the Hoysala dynasty turned the craft of religious sculpture into an evolved form of art at Belur and Halebid. Then moving further northward to the Deccani land of Andhra Pradesh wer come to what is probably the most popular temple in the country- the hilltop shrine dedicated to Balaji at Tirumala- Tirupati.
Karnataka
Belur & Halebid- Hampi
Karnataka is a vivid green, fertile land of paddy fields, river streams and gentle sloping hills. The mighty Tungabhadra and the Krishna rivers flow through this land past villages nestles in the shadows of banana and coconut trees, through grasslands and waterfalls in forests of teak, ebony and sandalwood. Karnataka was a part of the kingdom of the Cholas and the Gangas and they built many temples here. Then the Hoysala dynasty built a great capital at Dwarasamudra and the medieval age saw vijayangar rise by the turbulent waters of the Tungabhadra. The kings of Vijayanagar were legendary as patrons of temples. King Krishna Deva Raya donated gopurams at Chidambaram and Madurai and built fabulous temples in his capital city. The Hoysala dynasty ruled over most of the area of modern Karnataka in the 12th century. And the Hoysala kings built the extraordinary temples at Belur and at their capital of Dwarasamudra, now called Halebid.Chennakesava means the handsome long-haired god and the Channakesave temple at Belur is dedicated to Vishnu incarnated as Krishna. The temple was begun in 1116 by the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhan and took 103 years to complete. And even today Lord Chennakesava receives the worship of people in this temple. The Hoysaleswara temple at Halebid, dedicated to Shiva, was started by the same king but left incomplete after 180 years of labour. The floor plans of the Hoysala temples are very different from those of the Pallava or Chola buildings. The layout is star-shaped and the structure is flat on top without any towering vimanas or gopuram. The most intricate carvings on the walls of a temple can be found at these Hoysala temple that are still in a good state of preservation. The carvings are even finer and more precisely chiseled than the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu. One reason is the use of the soft soapstone that gradually hardens with the passage of time. The subjects of the carvings are the traditional ones of gods and goddesses, celestial maidens, dwarfs and demons. It is the quality of the execution that gives Belur and Halebid their uniqueness. It appears as if the figures were chieselled on wood or ivory rather than stone.
The texture that has been acheved is of the fragile intricacy of lace or a weave of threads with supple vines and flowers curving around figures of goddess wearing jewellery and garments carved in amazingly delicate detail. There is this dazzling virtuosity of detail and with it also an exuberance of dancing apsaras and a frieze of parades and animals that seem to be alive with movement. The canopices over the figures are pierced and scalloped and the domed ceilings are supported by pillars covered with ornamentation. The Hoysala carvings do not have the majestic power of Pallava or Chola work. Instead there is a sensitive, Iyrical quality that is like poetry frozen in stone.
Hampi
The swift currents of the Tungabhadra river swirl through a hilly landscape of low hills and giant russet brown boulders. In this daunting terrain rose one of the most opulent of medieval cities- Vijayangar. A city of rich bazaars, beautiful palaces and fabulous temples that was famous across the medival world. Vijayanagar rose to power in the 14th century and was the only Hindu kingdom in the south. As historian Percy Brown says, the archtecture of the city " represents the supremely passionate flowering of the Dravidian style." Just as the rise and prosperity of Vijayanagar was amazing, so was its downfall utterly tragic. All through its existence, Vijayanagar was always at war with the neighbouring states and finally these Muslim kingdoms united to attack the kingdom. Once the city fell it was occupied and systematically razed to the ground. The palaces were burnt, the temples looted and the sculpture vandalized.Vijayanagar was abandoned by its people in 1565 and never rose again. Today the ruins of palaces, temples and pavilions stand like beautiful ghosts among the boulders and hills, their rages shadows falling across the waters of the Tungabhadra. All that remains of a magnificent kingdom is the tiny village of Hampi. In Hampi only one temple is still a living shrine, all the others have lost their deities. The images of gods and demons, dwarapalas and apsaras lie in pieces in their courtyards.
At vijayanagar we see the final flowering of temple architecture and sculpture in the south. Every element from the fopurams to the amman shrines and the ranga mandapas can be seen here covered with a profusion of carvings. The most eyecatching are the pillars with rearing horses with riders and the mythical lion like creature called the yali. The Hazara Rama temple stands in the royal enclosure and was probably the personal chapel of the royal family. Most of the kings of Vijayanagar were Vaishnavas and this temple is dedicated to Vishnu’s eighth incarnation, Lord Rama. The carvings on the outer walls depictmany episodes from the life of Lord Rama. The Mahamandapa has four black stone pillars with a finely chiseled bas relief of Vishnu, the goddess Mahishamardinin and Hanuman. Vijayanagar’s main bazaar was a wide avenue with a row of cloisters for shops on both sides. At one end of this avenue rises the Matanga hill and at the other is the soaring gopuram of the Virupaksha Temple, the only living shrine in Hampi. It is alos called the Pampapati temple as the Tungabhadra is also called the goddess Pampa. The river goddess had performed a long and arduous penance to gain the favour of Shiva who finally came down from heaven and married her in the form of Virupaksha. The Virupaksha temple has two courtyards and the tallest gopuram rises to a height of 50 metres. Krishna Deva Raya built the ornate ranga mandapa and one of the smaller gopurams. Krishna Deva Raya began building the Vitthala temple by the river but it was probably not consecrated. Vitthala is another name of Vishnu and he is worshipped in this form at pandharpur in Maharashtra. It is the most elegantly planned and gracefully executed temple in Hampi. The open pavilion of the mahamandapa has pillars created by a cluster of slender columnettes that the guides claim are musical pillars. The ornate ranga mandapa is most decoratively carved and once had a brilliantly coloured ceiling and pillars. A beautifully carved stone replica of a wooden temple chariot stands before the door of the mahamandapa and once held an image of Vishnu’s bird, Garuda.
Tamil Nadu
Madurai- Rameshwaram
Most of the temples of Tamil Nadu built in the Pallava and the Chola period have been covered in the earlier chapter. Here we take two temples that wre built in the medieval times, during the rule of the Nayakas. This dynasty came into power after the downfall of the Vijayanagar Empire. The Nayakas were originally the governors of the Vijayanagar kings. Among their contributions is the most important shrine to the Mother Goddess in the south-the temple dedicated to Meenakshi at their capital city of Madurai.Madurai
One of the oldest cities in India, Madurai’s beginnings are lost in the shadows of myths and legends. Its contemporaries were ancient Egypt and Greece but while these classical cultures are long forgotten, India’s traditions still flourish in the corridors of temples like the Meenakshi temple at Madurai. The festivals and sacred rituals have remained unchanged for thousands of years.Madurai finds mention in the chronicles of travelers in ancient India. Ptolemy and Strabo mention Madurai, and megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya has described the legendary riches of the city in the 4th century B.C. Madurai stood on the terminus of the Spice Route, trading in pepper, silk, ivory and pearls. And the ships of the rich merchants of the city bought back the finest Italian wines, eye shadow and perfume, silverware and pretty female slave-musicians. Even in this century Roman coins have been found around Madurai and an embassy from the city was received in the court of Nero in Rome. Such a prosperous city naturally built temples to rival the best in the region. It was the capital of the Pandyan dynasty from the 6th to the 10th century. Then it was a part of the Vijayanagar Empire. When Vijayanagar disintegerated, their viceroys, the Nayakas, declared independence and established their own kingdoms. The old city of Madurai was invaded and destroyed by Malik Kafur, a general of the Sultan of Delhi and most of the present city was built in the 16th century during the Nayaka period, especially during the reign of King Tirumala Nayaka.
As the capital of the Nayaka kings Madurai was also the cultural heart of the region. Literary conferences called Sangams were held here and some of the greatest Tamil classics like Shilappadikaram wre composed at this time. It was said that the manuscript of any new writing was put on the water of the Golden Lotus tank of the temple and the good works floated and the bad ones prombtly sank. Even today Madurai is a centre of handicrafts, especially of cotton and silk weaving.
Like all ancient places of pilgrimages, Madurai has amyth for every hill and river and temple. The cityis said to have been built by an ancient Pandyan king at the site where Indra worshipped Shiva. The king could not think of a name for the city till he dreamt of the nectar falling from Shiva’s hair. So he named his city Madhurapura, the ‘sweet place’, and from this was derived the name Madurai. There are two hills called Yanai Malai, the Elephant Hill and Naga Malai, the Snake Hill on the outskirts of the city. Shiva turned an evil elephant into rock when it tried to trample the Brahmins of Madurai. And the Vaigai river was created by Lord Sundareshwara to quench the thirst of a guest at his wedding, a dwarf who had eaten a mountain of rice.
Built by the Nayaka king Tirumala, even today the true heart of the city is the Meenakshi-Sundareshwara temple. Meenakshi means the fish-eyed goddess, a concept of beauty in traditional India. She and her husband Sundareshwara are said to have ruled ancient Madurai. The story of Meenakshi begins with King Malayadhwaja and Queen Kanchanmala performing a yagnja to pray for a son and Meenakshi was born out of the fire. An incarnate of parvati, the Pandyan princess was born with three breasts. The astrologers predicted that the third breast would disappear when Meenakshi Would Meet her husband. At her father’s death the militant princess became the ruler and began an expedition of conquests. When she reached the Himalayas she came into conflict with gods. When Shiva came to the battlefield to fight, Meenakshi’s third breast vanished. Shiva told her to return to Madurai and waitfor him. He arrived eight days later as Sundareshwara, the Handsome Lord, and married Meenkshi. The two ruled Madurai as king and queen. The temple is dedicated to both of them and each has a shrine but is it Meenakshi who still finds a special place in the hearts of the people. Warriot princess, queen and goddess, she is simply Amman to her devotees and they come to the temple of their divine mother believing she is the most generous of all the deities and that if you ask with faith and a clear heart your prayers will certainly be answered.
As befitting the Lord, Sundareshwara has the larger shrine but is is Meenakshi who isalways worshipped first. The two temples are called the Amman and Swamy Koyil and stand within the innermost of four enclosures. Both the temple have a garba griha, an ardha mandapa, a mahamandapa and pradakshina corridors encircling the sanctum. The temples have small but intricately carved shikharas gilded with gold.
The main immovable image of Meenakshi is a standing image of the goddess in green stone and Shiva is worshipped as a lingam. These are the mulamurt is and both deities have movable festival images of bronze called utsava murti. These images are also worshipped with the mulamurtis. Meenakshi’s utsava murti shows her along but Sundareshwara is in a Somaskanda form, sitting with the goddess Uma and with their son Skanda in the middle. This reflects the common depiction of the two deities in the South. The goddess is active as she symbolizes shakti, power and energy. Shiva is normally a passive god unless combined with the shakti of the goddess.
The enclosures have twelve gopurams and the four tallest ones still dominate the skyline of the city. These gopurams have been restored, teeming with plaster figures painted in bright colours. The tallest, the south gopuram. Is 9 storeys high and has over 1500 figures. The temple is a city within a city with many halls, a tank, shrines to other gods, offices, refectories, even an art gallery and a museum. Shops line the Ashta Shati mandapa at the entrance, selling garlands, incense, trinkets, sandalwood and vermilion. The corridors leading into the shrines and the many halls have some fine examples of the sculpture of the Vijayanagar and Nayaka periods. The Mangammal hall has ceilings painted with the story of the marriage of Meenakshi. The thousand-pillar hall is a forest of pillars. Carved from a single block of granite they capture every aspect of the pageantry of life. A dazzling panorama ofprancing horses and strange lion-like beasts, deities and indolent apsaras, dancers and musicians.
The finest sculptures are the free standing figures showing the marriage of Meenakshi and Sundareshwara. Here Vishnu as Meenakshi’s brother is shown giving the bride away and the posture of the figures, with Vishnu pouring water over the clasped hands of the bride and groom can still be seen in Hindu weddings all across the land. Also, standing against the pillars are the full sized sculpted images of the Nayaka patrons of the temple. The Golden Lotus tank within the temple is said to mark the spot where Indra worshipped Shiva and picked golden lotuses for the puja. The tank is surrounded by a collonade and is a serene corner of the temple complex with the reflection of the southern gopuram falling on its still waters and people bathing by the steps.
The temple is always crowede with pilgrims, the air filled with music and chanting, bells and trumpets and many weddings are held on auspicious days. There are a dozen important festivals at the temple when Meenakshi with her divine bridegroom, and at other times alson, rides out on a chariot to visit the town. The colourful processions are lit by torches and led by drummers and musicians playing the nadaswaram with a phalanx of ambling elephants behind them. Priests carry parasols and other symbols of royalty and other gods like Ganesha and Subrahmanya join the parade in their own chariots. At one time the devadasis of the temple used to lead these processions.
The Chittirai festival held in April recreated the marriage of Meenakshi and Sundareshwara, with Vishnu accompanying the bride. The excited crowds celebrate like they would a wedding in their family. In the Teppam festival the divine couple are taken in procession to the Teppakkulam tank for a delightful night- time boatride in a barge sparkling with lights, tinsel and flowers. In Madurai the great romance of Meenakshi and her Handsome Lord is a living celebration even today.
Rameswaram
Rameswaram is a sacred island at the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula and it is one of the chaar dhams- the four tirthasthanas at the cardinal points of the land- Badrinath in the north, Puri in the east, Dwarka in the west and Rameswaram in the south. Many believe that a pilgrimage to Varanasi is truly complete only after a visit to Rameswaram. The island of Rameswaram is said to be shaped like Vishnu’s conch and it is intimately connected to the lifestory of the most popular incarnation of Vishnu- Lord Rama, the hero of the Ramayana. Rama came here looking for his wife Sita who had been abducted by Ravana, the king of Lanka. And it is from Rameswaram that he built the earth bridge to launch an attack into Lanka which lies just across the bay.Ravana, who was a Brahmin and a scholar, was a great devotee of Shiva and Durga, whose many blessings had made him invincible in battle. So before the battle Rama worshipped Durga here, praying for her support. This Durga puja is still celebrated every autumn in Bengal and it is the time of the nine auspicious days of Navaratri in the rest of the country. Rama was triumphant in war and returned to Rameswaram with Sita and then once again decided to do a yagnja to atone for the sin of killing Ravana, a Brahmin. He sent Hanuman to Mount Kailash to get a shivalingam for the ceremony.
On the auspicious day everything was ready for the yagnja, the sacred hour was passing but Hanuman had still not arrived. So Sita created a lingam with sand and this was worshipped. Poor Hanuman hurrying back from the Himalayas with the crystal Akasha lingam was deeply disappointed to find the yaganja over. Noticing his sadness Rama installed both the lingams in the temple he built at Rameswaram. So at the Ramanathaswami temple Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, worships Shiva and there are two lingams in the garba griha- the Ramanatha lingam created by Sita and the Vishwa lingam that was brought by Hanuman. The vishwa lingam is also one of the ten, self- manifest jyotirlingams.
Dated to the 12th century, the present Ramanathaswami temple stands beside a lake and is said to have taken three centuries to build. Suprisingly, the inspiration for building the temple came from a prince of Sri Lanka. The temple is in the traditional Dravidian style with a nine- storey gopuram and a number of sacred tanks. What is unique in this temple is the corridot that encircles the garbagriha that stretches for a distance of 1240 metres and is the longest corridor in the country. It is designed as a row of pillars carved out of single blocks of granite and a beautifully painted ceiling. Walking down the dim stretches of the corridor, with stray rays of sunlight filtering in and an endless line of pillars stretching into the distance, is a visually stunning experience.
There are other temples on the isaland like the Kodandaraswamy temple where vibhishana, the brother of Ravana came to join Rama. It stands ar Dhanushkodi where the waters of the Bay of Bengal merge into the Indian Ocean and pilgrims bathe in the sea as Rama once did. Also, there are the Gandhamadan Parvatam, Darbha Sayanam and Adi Jagannatha temples, all of which are connected to various episodes during Rama’s tow visits to the isaland.
Kerala
Guruvayur
Kerala stretches across the shores of the Arabian Sea in a verdant green landscape of palm trees and paddy fields. Boats laden with goods move through a maze of backwaters and fishermen venture out to the sea at dawn. Christianity came first to Kerala and some of the country’s oldest churches are found here. And this cosmopolitan land also built mosques, temples and synagogues.The town of guruvayur is called the Dwarka of the south and this is because of the famous deity that stands in the Sri Krishna temple there. Here a deity of Vishnu is worshipped as Krishna and the god is known as Guruvayurappan, and the deity is said to be thousands of years old. The Narada Purana says that the deity was first given to Krishana’s father Vasudv by Lord Brahma and it was also worshipped by Krishna at Dwarka. In his last days when Krishna decided to retire from Dwarka he gave the idol to Uddhava as his ole friend and adviser was so despondent at Krishna leaving him.
After Krishna’s death when the sea claimed Dwarka the deity was brought to Kerala by Brihaspati, the guru of the gods and Vayu, the Lord of Air. As they wandered about seeking a sanctified place they were guided by Parasuram to a lake filled with lotuses. They found Shiva meditating by the waters and because of this the temple tank is called Rudra Tirtha after Shiva. In this way Vishnu Krishna came to Guruvayur, a place already sanctifies by Shiva. The temple architecture of the region has all the elements of a traditional layout but the style of building is different from the standard Dravidian one. The most noticeable difference is the tiered, pagoda style roof of the 19th century temple. The auspicious eastern gopuram is called the Bhuloka Vaikuntham and in the outer enclosure there is a 33 metre high flagpost, the dhwajasthambha flanked by two deepasthambhas, pillars of lamps. At night when the lamps on these dipasthambhas arelit, they shimmer with hundreds of dancing points of flame. The main temple is called Srikoyil and the deity in the garbha griha is a traditional four- armed image of Vishnu. Made of a rare stone called Patala Ajanam it shows Vishnu With his shankha, chakra, gada and padma. The Lord wears many jewels and garlands of tulsi and perals. The walls of the Srikoyil are painted with stories from the life of Krishna and the pjua is conducted by Nambudri Brahmins. The pradakshina patha encircling the garba griha is called Nalambalam. The temple also has shrines of the consort goddess. Edatharikathu Kavil Bhagavati and of Saraswati and Ganesha.
Guruvayur is a centre for the performance of the Krishnattam dance-dramas and the temple processions are a glittering display of pageantry, one of the most colourful in the region. The festival images, the utsava vigrahs, is placed on a golden throne and then carried on elephant back, escorted by a swaying phalanx of elephants caparisoned in silks and gold. Priests carry huge parasols and fans, musicians play trumpets, drums and gongs, the sky is lit with fireworks and as devotees raise their voices in chants of praise, Lord Guruvayurappan takes a ride along his kingdom. Among the important festivals are the Ekadashi in November- December, the Utsavam in February- March and the puram festival in April- May. In every festival the most eyecatching sight are the forty elephants bedecked in gold that come from Lord Guruvaurappan’s personal elephant stables in the fort at punnathur Kotta.
The Guruvayur temple is one of the most popular and richest temples in South India. The deity is believed to be a kind, forgiving and generous god and devotees often offer the ritual of Tulabharam here. Devotees promise various things ranging from coconuts and bananas to silver equal to their own body weight if their prayers are answered. Like the Meenakshi temple in Madurai this temple is also a venue for marriage ceremonies.
Andhra Pradesh
Tirupati- Tirumala Andhra Pradesh straddles both north and peninsular India and its culture carries a blend of both regions. From medieval times parts of it were Muslim kingdoms. First were the Nawabs of Golconda and then came the Nizams who ruled till india’s independence. Once Buddhism flourished here with many monasteries built here, the temples appeared among the cotton fields and on top of rocky hills. One such hill has the most popular temple in the country.Tirupati- Tirumala
The Tirumala hill stands at the edge of the town of Tirupati and on top of the hill is the legendary Venkateshwara temple worshipped by kings and commoners for centuries. Venkateshwara is the Lord of the Venkatachala hills, the seven peaks that surround Tirupati. The seven hills are also called Sheshachalam as they are said to be the seven hoods of the Sheshanaga. Vishnu is often depicted lying on the coils of this celestial snake. Tirulama is an ancient site of a temple and is mentioned in the Puranas as one of the favourite places of Lord Vishnu. Both Lord Rama and the Pandava brothers are said have worshipped Venkateshwara at this temple. It is said that Vishnu came to the Sheshachalam hill in search of solitude and finding a quiet spot among the mango and sandalwood trees he began to meditate here. His tapasya went on for such a long time that he was covered with earth and the ants, thinking her eas a part of the hill, began to climb all over him. The people thought he was just another rock until a cowhered discovered the figure of Vishnu buried under layers of earth. Today this hill where Vishnu came seeking peace and solitude teems with pilgrims and the Venkateshwara- Balaji temple is the busiest and richest temple in India.Many devotees prefer to walk up the hill, a distance of 16 kilometres and the temple enclosure covers all the area on top of the hill, an area of 4 square kilometers. The temple was originally built in the 10th century but it has been renovated many times since then, with a new gopuram built recently. With the burgeoning popularity has come newer buildings to cope with the huge influx of visitors. Now the temple has three enclosure with gopurams, many smaller shrines, offices, stores, kitchens and mandapas. The vimana of the main temple called the Ananda Nilayam has a solid gold shikhara.
Venkateshwara- Balaji is probably the most familiar deity in South India. His image on calendars and photographs graces the walls of homes, offices and shops. The icon is a two metre tall image of Vishnu and is called by many names- Venkateshwara, Balaji, Venkatanatha, Srinivasa and Perumal. It is made of black stone and stands on a lotus. The two upper arms carry the shankha or conch and the chakra or discus. But instead of the lotus and mace usually seen in Vishnu’s other hands, the lower right hand is turned in a varadanamudra, the gesture of blessing and the lower left hand turned inwards towards the body. The eyes of the image are covered with a broad, triangular, white tilaka. It is said that the eyes are so beautiful that if the devotees could see them they would never want to leave. Another reason given for covering the eyes is that if they were uncovered they would scorch the earth with their power. This tilaka is called the Ramanuja tilaka and the puja in the temple is conducted by Brahmins who hail from the sage Ramanujacharya. They conduct the rituals along the guidelines laid down by him.
There are some other deities in the garba griha. The Bhoga Srinivasa is a silver replica of the main Balaji image. The Malai Kuniya Nenran Perumal is the itsava murti that is taken out in procession. The image of the consort goddess Alarmelamangai Nachiyar, a form of Lakshmi, is carved on the chest of Balaji and the images of Bhu Devi, the earth goddess and Shri Devi, the goddess of wealth stand next to him. The image is adorned with precious gems, gold and silver and very little of Balaji is visible under the layers of jewellery and flowers. The tall gold and diamond crown is said to be the single most valuable piece of jewellery in the world. The deity weats a garland of gold coins and even the two lower hands are covered with gold and diamonds. Balaji also wears an emerald called Meru Pacha, that is among the biggest emeralds in the world and he rides in a solid gold palanquin during the festivals.
The legendary jewellery and the wealth of the temple comes from the faith of people in Balaji’s power at ansering prayers and bringing good fortune. Kings like Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagar came to thank Balaji for his blessings. He presented the deity with a jewel studded crown, a necklace of perals and silver plates. On later visits he presented a sword decorated with diamonds, rubies and sapphires and after a great victory he covered Balaji with thirty thousand gold coins. The images of the king and his two queens stand in the first mandapa of the temple.
The temple layout is the traditional one with a gopuram leading into the enclosures. The festivals are held in the Ranga Mandapa, the Annaunjal and Tirumalaraya halls. The second enclosure has shrines to Varadaraja, Narasimha and Ramanujacharya. The entrance to the sanctum is guarded by the two dwarapalas, Jaya and Vijaya. The Varahaswami temple stands next to the Swamil Pushkarini tank and there is a small museum nearby. The most important festival is the Brahmotsavam, a celebration of Brahma descending to earth worship Balani. During this festival there is a Rathotsava when the deity is taken out in procession. Also, there is the day when Balaji is put behind gold bars because he is said to have borrowed money from Kubera, the god of wealth and his descendents come asking the Lord to repay the loan. On this day devotees make huge offerings to rescue Balaji from this dilemma. During pushpayagam, the flower festival over two tons of flowers in thrity varieties are offered to the deity.
With an average arrival of 25, 000 pilgrims daily and over a lakh people crowding the precincts during festivals the temple generates an income said to touch 500 crore rupees a year. The Tirumala temple has a temple staff of 6000 and its own administration, the Tirupati Tirumala Devasthanam. It runs a gigantic enterprise that offers free food and shelter to pilgrims and manges the crowds during the religious ceremonies and festivals. The Devasthanam has ploughed much of the income of the temple into charities and it runs schools, colleges, orphanages and hospitals. As people often shave their heads here as a vow, the barbers generate a substantial income form the sale of the hair for wigs. And laddus, as prasada, are prepared in thousands in the huge temple Kitchen. Lord Balaji- Venkateshwara is a truly generous and caring deity.
