The Monolithic Vimana Forms
While the Chalukyas of Badami started constructing structural temples of the very tractable sandstone closely following their earlier excavated forck-cut cave-temples in the same type of rock, the pallavas were faced with a gery hard and intractable material-the granites and charnockites. Besides carving out a few vimana forms as miniature reliefs or full-scale facades, they also started carving out three-dimensional monolithic vimanas of normal stature, and of diverse kinds. This was a squel to the experience they gained in the cutting in of cave-temples in hard stone. Such pioneering work of making cut-out vimana temples was inaugurated by Mamalla Narasimhavarman II (630-668), and the monoliths were taken to different degrees of finish. New ones were created by his successors, Mahendravarman II (668-672) and paramesvaravarman I (672-700), and also perhaps by Rajasimha (700-728) in his early years before he started the vogue of constructinf structural temples. There are nine such monolithic vimanas, popularly called rathas, and named after the Pandava group as usual in folk tradition, all confined to Mahabalipuram, in various stages of completion and representing different forms. It will be useful to consider along with these the eight miniature bas-relief representations of vimanas found in the same place, as also the full-scale example of the tirmurti cave-temple façade, since they taken together woul illustrate various forms of the southern vimanas. Incidentally they constitute the earliest representations copied in stone from the contemporary and earlier brick-and-timber vimanas. Thus these stone replicas would afford a good starting point for the study of the south Indian temple architecture. More so because these faithfully reproduce in stone not only the various forms in general, but also the individual parts, even to the minutest detail, of timbering, fasterning, metal work and decorative design appropriate to the various forms of the brick-and-timber originals.
The bas-relief miniatures found in the famous Arjuna’s penance scene in Mahabalipuram is a typical replica of an ekatala alpa vimana with all the six angas or parts. Viz. the adhishthana (moulded base), pada, or bhitti (pillars or walls), or prastara (entablature with kapota or cornice), griva (neck or clerestory), sikhara (roof), and stupi (finial). Being four-sided and square from base to finial, it belongs to the Nagara class and is dedicated to Vishnu, who is shown in relief as standing inside the cella. The reproduction of the parts of the wooden original is quite obvious. The two bas-relief replicas in miniature on either flank of the façade of the Ramanuja mandapa cave-temple are likewise ekatala, Nagara forms, but with their cella empty. Their adhishthana stands over a larger moulded platform, which would from the upa-pitha, an optional member, often introduced in the design to elevate the height of a vimana.
A similr bas-relief miniature of an ekatala vimana of a hexagonal section from base to apex is depicted inside the front sikhara arch (torana mukhapatti) of the apsidal Nakula-Sahadeva ratha. This with a uniform polugonal plan from base to apex would conform to the pure Dravida class of southern vimanas as described in the texts. Two more identical relief miniatures inside the two arched ekatala vimanas, each with a square body (aditala) over a similar adhishthana carrying over the prastara a circular griva and circular sikhara with stupi, illustrating the Vesara class of the mixed variety since their griva and sikhara parts are circular, though the aditala components below are square in section. What would appear to be tall and column-like dvitala, or two-storeyed forms of the pure Vesara vimanas, circular in section from base to apex, are represented by the identical miniature reliefs found one at either end of the wagon-top sikhara of the Ganesa ratha.
The trimurti cave-temple at Mahabalipuram differs from the other rock-cut mandapa-type cave-temples of the Mahendra or mamalla style, in that it represents only the vimana-or shrine-fronts of three contiguous units in bold relief without the frontal mandapa component. Each unit is complete with the adhishthana having a flight of steps in front, the aditala with excavated shrine-cells and external pilasters, walls and niches, and the prastara with a prominent kapota adorned by kudu arches and the elements of the hara over it, at which stage the top of the rock is reached. Further continuation upwards of these threee apparently dvitala vimana-front is barred by the limited height of the parent rock. The three west-facing shrine-cells contain on their rear walls bas-reliefs of the principal deities. They are a standing Vishnu with devotees in the southern cell, a standing Siva with devotees in the middle cell, and a standing Brahmanya or Brahmasasta in place of Brahma with devotees inside the northern cell. This is a slight variation from the presiding deities of the Mandagappattu cave-temple, which was the first such Pallava temple to be excavated by Mahendra I and which, according to his inscription, was dedicated to the trinity-Vishnu, Siva and Brahma. These icons of Mandagappattu were perhaps painted on the walls of the three niche-like shrines of the cave-temple. The entrances of the three vimana fronts are guarded by appropriate dvarapala figures carved inside the niches. On the rock face to the south of the group is carved a relief of Durga, standing on a severed buffalo-head, the head of the Mahishasura demon. It is inside a niche placed over the moulded adhishthana having a flight of steps in front, as in the adjoining tirmurti shrine. The niche entrance is framed by two pilasters carrying an elaborate torana, while over either extreme corner o the adhishthana platform arecut taller pilasters, the whole scheme appearing to be a replica of the front elevation of the Draupadi ratha but without the hut-like roof carved on top.
The five rathas at the southern end of Mahabalipuram prise a group by themselves. Of these the Draupadi, Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja rathas standing in a line are cut out of a single whale-back rock extending north-south an severed into three convenient sections. The northernmost section of lesser height has been utilized for cutting out the shorter Draupadi ratha and the storeyed Arjuna ratha, with a common platform, or upa-pitha for both, below their separate adhishthanas. The central longer segment with a fairly horizontal top ridge has been appropriately utilized for the oblong Bhima ratha, and the southern taller section, with a broader base too, for the three-storeyed Dharmaraja ratha-all facing west. The fifth ratha-the nakula-Sahadeva ratha which is apsidal or of gaja-prishtha (elephant back) form and the adjoining sculpture of the elephant, both facing south, have been carved out of another smaller rock that stood independently in front on the wst of the Draupadi and Arjuna rathas. Another rock that stood close behind on the east of the Draupadi and Arjuna rahtas was cut down to ground level in order to bring the rear aspects of these two rathas into full view. The central mass that intervened between the two rathas was retained and cut out as a large sculpture of a recumbent Nandi facing west. A small upright free-standing rock just in front of the Draupadi ratha that would have hidden its front view has been shaped into a large sculpture of a standing lion facing north.
Of the other four rathas, the Ganesa ratha has been cut out of a boulder amidst the main hill in Mahabalipuram, and the two Pidari rathas (northern and southern, so called because they are near the modern temple of the village goddess pidari) and the Valaiyankuttai ratha (standing in front of the Valaiyankuttai pond) are shaped out of free-standing bouldersat a distance on the western side of the main hill.
The small Draupadi ratha illustrates the type of a very simple hut-like vimana, square on plan, with only four of the usual six-angas of the vimana, namely. Adhishthana, pada and bhitti, sikhara and stupi, the angas that are lacking being the prastara and griva. This chaturvarga ratha represents the kuta type with a four-sided domical roof, or sikhara, crowned by a single stupi or finial. In having a square platform base to apex, it exemplifies the pure Nagara order. It is dedicated to Durga whose standing sculpture in relief, with attendants, is carved on the rear wall of the sanctum. The main doorway is framed by a fine torana as also the three devakoshthas which also enshrine standing relief sculpture of Durga on the three side walls. On either side of the doorway are flanking dvarapalikas, one on either side in the niche between the corner plaster and torana pilaster framing the entrance. This ratha lack a mukha or ardha-mandapa, unlike the other rathas, as also the nasikas projected from the sikhra.
A dvitala and hence ashtanga, or ashtavarga vimana of the same Nagara order, square from base to apex is illustrated in the incomplete Valaiyankuttai ratha facing east. It has a small ardha-mandapa and the aditala has a single wall, hence it is nirandhara. The prastaras of both the talas carry arpita haras, appliqué on the harmya of the second tala and on the griva above, and made up of four karnakutas at the corners and four salas in between them on each side over each face. There are nasikas on the four sides of the griva sikhara region. The hara at the aditala level is extended also over the top of the ardha-mandapa, a feature of all early vimanas. The kutas and salas over the mandapa are of a smaller size than those over the aditala as usual. This is an example of the elaboration of the talachchanda by the addition of one storey over the ekatala form of six angas illustrated by the bas-relief vimanas which are depicted in Arjuna’s penance sculpture and again at either end of the façade of the Ramanuja mandapam cave-temple. The northern ratha of the twin Pidari rathas, facing northwith its ardha-mandapa, is of the pure Nagara order, with only this difference that there is no hara over the second tala-an advanced feature-making it out as the last of the series in Mahabalipuram and anticipating in this respect the later vimanas of the eighth century. Thegriva sikhara faces are provided with projected nasikas. Both the rathas lack sculptures on their aditala walls and are incomplete.
The incomplete southern Pidari ratha facing east and the more complete Arjuna ratha are likewise double-storeyed, square in section in both the talas and carrying appliqué haras of four karnakutas and four salas at both levels. The griva and sikhara are, however, octagonal in section, making them both ashtanga, nirandhara vimanas of the Dravida order of the composite variety. There arefoure nasikas projected from the four cardinal sides of the griva sikhara. The ardha-mandapa in both the vimanas carries haras of kutas nd salas of a smaller size than those over the aditala.
There are no sculptures on the walls of the northern Pidari ratha, while in the Arjuna ratha the faces of the aditala from adhishthana to prastara are offset thrice, at the two corners an in the middle, and the reliefs contain plain niches carrying fine figure sculpture. The second tala too has sculpture on its walls inside the corner pilasters of each face that are exposed to view on either side of the central sala of the hara in front. The two pillars and two pilasters of the mandapa façade are vyala-based. As in all the above cases, the hara is extended over the mandapa.
The Dharmaraja ratha is three-storeyed, square in its talas and octagonal in the griva sikhara region; but all the three storeys are intended to be functional. Thus the vimana is designed to have three superposed garbha-grihas, as against the non-functional but symbolic upper talas in the other rathas and most of the later structural examples. This is achieved by a cellular mode of construction with three concentric walled squares of increasing height, rising one inside the other to the successive heights of the respective talas, thus leaving interspaces in between. The outer most wall rising to the height of the aditala prastara is, howver, present in sections only round the four corners, te intervening open sides having each a façade of two pilasters and two pilasters, all vyala-based. The haras over the prastara of the three talas are thus detached from the tala walls, and hence anarpita. The small mukha-mandapa on the west in front of the aditala carries a hara which in its composition inclues for the fist time the apsidal nida or panjara along with the kutas and salas. The octagonal griva sikhra region has four projected nasikas on the four cardinal sides. While the lower talas remain unfinished but for their exterior, the topmost tala has a sanctum excavated into it that enshrines a Somaskanda form of Siva, with Vishnu and Brahma in attendance carved on its rear wall. In addition to dvarapalas on either side o the entrance, this tala, like the two lower tala walls, contains in its niches fine sculptures of various gods illustrating varied features of early Pallava iconography. This was perhaps commenced by Mamalla, as indicaed by the label inscribed on the eastern side of the second tala, and was brought to its present stage of completion with the consecration of the top tala by Paramesvaravarman, as the labels on the top tala would denote.
In the Dharmaraja ratha what a apparently looks lik the outer wall of the aditala cantoning the corners leaving open-pillared entrances on the four cardinals, in between, is really the aditala or groundfllor shrine. The pattern is realy one where the wall of the aditala garbha-gridha or cella rises up as the outer wall of the second tala sanctum which is render sandhara with an inner wall, in addition, that rises up higher as the wall of the third tala of leser linear dimensions than the ones below. Thus the Dharmaraja ratha is only pseudo-sandhara on its groundfloor or aditala.
The Bhima and Ganesa rathas illustrate the oblong or ayatasra vimanas of the koshtha- or sala-type, with wagon-top roofs (sala sikharas) carrying a row of stupis, or finials over the ridge as opposed to the kuta or convergent type of sikhara with a single finial in the others. The incomplete Bhima ratha appears to be pseudo-sandhara, like the Dharmaraja ratha, in that its oblong aditala is surrounded by a narrow mandapa with walls round the corners and intervening open facades of two pillars and two pilasters on the long and short sides, the pillars and pilasters being vyala-based. The mandapa carries above its prastara a hara of kutas at the four corners and sala in between, over the sides. The oblong sanctum facing west was perhaps intended for a reclining form of Vishnu with his head to the south and legs to the north. The oblong griva, which rises as an upper continuation of the garbha-griha walls, is rather tall. On each of the two lonf sides of the griva sikhara are five well-projected nasikas in three sizes, the central one being the largest, the extreme ones middling, and the intermediate one being the smallest. The three larger ones represent full nasikas with the prastara element in their composition. The two smallest ones lack the prastara part. The harantara parts between the kutas and salas of the hara circuit have still smaller nasikas than are usual in all the other rathas. Thus this ratha alone would illustrate the various forms of nasikas as described in the texts. The two-storeyed Ganesa ratha is nirandhara, single-walled, and with a narrow mukha-mandapa in front and of the same length as the aditala. The mandapa is walled on its shorter sides and round the front corners leaving an open façade in front, with vyala-based pillars and pilasters. The hara over both the talas as also that over the mandapa contains the kutas and salas alone. There are three projected nasikas on the two longer sides of the griva sikhara region of which the central one is larger with the prastara elementin its make-up and the two lateral ones smaller without that element. The stupis are integral and cut out at the completion of the vimana from the mass left over the ridge unlike in the othr rathas where they are separate insertions. The crest of the two end arches of the sikharas carry, in addition, a trisula finial each, which is the head of three-horned sula deve represented by the face only. Similar sula deva finials, like the stupis were inserted in the case of the Bhima ratha. Except the dvarapalas there are no other sculptures in this ratha. In the façade of this ratha, besides the two vyala-based pillaras, the pilastersof the façade are different, in that another type of mythical animal, a vyala-like form with beaked face, is introduced in the pilaster base. The ratha according to its inscription was originallu dedicated to Siva; the Ganesa idol, now found planted in the cella, is an introduction of very recent times.
The dvitala and wholly apsidal and nirandhara Nakula-Sahadeva ratha well illustrates the dvayasra (two-sided with apseend) or chapa (bow-curve) form also called gaja- or hastiprishtha, in that it resembles the rear of a standing elephant, a large sculpture of which is carved by the side as if to emphasize the resemblance. The chapa form of the Nakula-Sahadeva ratha derives its architectural nomenclature chapa from the fact that the shape of the vimana on plan resembles the U-shaped cuves of a fully drawn bow or chapa. Because of its elliptical shape, though truncated at the front end, this is also classified as of the Vesara order. It has a small open mukha-mandapa in front, of almost the same width as the aditala. The two front pillars are vyala-based an the two rear pilasters are elephant-based. The prastara over the aditala has a hara with two karnakutas at the two front corners, while over the sides and round the rear apse there is a row of salas. The hara on the mandapa too has only kutas and salas. The hara of the second tala, howecer, shows two hidas or panjaras (which are ekataka miniatures of the main vimana) between the two karnakutas on the front face, while the rest of the hara on the sieds and round the curve is made up of salas. The innovation, namely, the addition of the third element, the panjara or nida, in the composition of the hara seems to have been made for the first time here, as over the mukha-mandapa of the Dharmaraja ratha, the stageof completion of which should have been at about the same time as this apsidal ratha. This ratha has no sculpture either inside the sanctum, or on the walls of the talas between the pilasters.
The Pallava vogue of creating cut-out monolithic temple forms was soon caught up, as it were, not nly by the neighbours of the pallavas in south India, but also by others much beyond, and quite a few monolithic temples of the southern and northern types were created in various parts of India, from the Tirunelveli district at the far southern up of the peninsula to the Kangra district in the foot-hills of the Himalayas in the north, from Bihar in the east to Mandsaur in the west and Gwallior in central India- all within the two succeeding centuries.
Following this pioneering work of the Pallava, a few attempts at the cutting out of monolithic vimana forms in the same or succeeding centuries are noticeable in the Eastern Chalukyan region north of the Pallava territory of Tondaimandalam. At Undavalli, immediately to the west of the wel-known four-storeyed cave-temple, the Anantasayanagudi, a projecting section of the rock is cut into a temple form with vimana and front mandapas, the latter fully cut out and the former presented externally in front elevation. The tiered superstructure rises on main hill-face over the top lines of the font mandapas. Internally, the work presents the full aspect of an excavated cave-temple with front halls and a shrine-cell behind. The mandapa façade has two pillars and two pilasters, all of the plaintype. There is a wel-deined kapota on its architrave decorated by kudu arches. The lateral wall of the mukha-mandapa inside has devakoshthas, now empty. Similar niches surmounted by toranas are to be found on the rear wall of the ardha-mandapa on either side of the shrine entrance. The shrine-cell is empty. In the adjoining rock faces bas-relief vimana miniatures are cut, six in number, or varying sizes and much resembling the model bas-reliefs seen in Arjuna’s penance composition and on either side of the Ramanuja mandapam at Mahabalipuram. They are replicas of ekatala Nagara vimanas, square in section from base to apex. The much damaged remains of a monolithic vimana are to be found in Vijayawada, in front of the upper cave-temple of the Vimana.
Akkanna-Madanna group. In the precincts of the apsidal brick temple of Kapotesvara at Chejerla (Guntur district) are to be found a number of miniature shrine models, monolithic in character, evidently of a votive nature? These would also recall similar models found in the temple precincts at Satyavolu, Mahanandi and Alampur in the adjoining Kurnool district. One of the Chejerla models is interesting: in that it shows a completely free-standing pair of pillars for the shrine front.
While the contemporary Western Chalukyas of Badami, who were forging ahead with their structural stone temples, did not take up the carved-out monolithic mode of the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas, who soon replaced the Chalukyas in their own territory, took it up with zest and, among others, created at Ellora the greatest and largest monolithic version of a southern temple complex that is familiarly known as the Kailasa.
This creation of Rashtrakuta Krishna I (756-775) is rather unique. By trenching vertically down into the sloping hill on all sides of a chosen area at right angles up to the base of the rock, an oblong central mass (about 60m x 30m) was isolated and in front of it, beyond the wider front trench, a further trench isolated a narrower transversely oblong mass stretching across like a wall. The larger oblong mass, longer from front to rear than from side to side, afforded the material for carving out the complex of the main vimana and its axial mandapas, as also two tall and stout free- standing monolithic pillars on either side in front surrounded by an open courtyard formed by trenches on all the sides. The fore-court on the front, measuring 90m x 60m, was cut wider than on the sides and it is on the two sides of this that the two monolithic free-standing pillars are found carved. The much narrower, transversely oblong mass in front afforded the material for the carving out of a front gopura entrance, with the two wings of prakara walls on either side. The gopura is double-storeyed with a sala skhara on top and a passage cut through its lower part to provide access to the forecourt in front and the circumambulatory passage round the base of the main vimana complex. The upper storey is connected with the floor of the Nandi-mandapa. This is likewise conceived as a two-storeyed structure with the lower storey solid and non-functional and serving only as a raised platform, despite the external markings of all the architectural features of an aditala, and the upper functional, containing Nandi inside. The main part of the temple beyond consists essentially of vimana containing the sanctum with an antrala, or ardha-mandapa, and a closed maha-mandapa axially in front. The whole axial series is raised over a highly ornate plinth with its top platform supported, as it were, over a frieze of bodly carved fronts of elephants, lions and a numbe of mythological animals. The maha-mandapa is cantoned at its two rear corners by dvitala vimanas of the kuta-type, and has three projected proch-openings on the middle of its south, west and north sides, which are superposed by larger and more raised salas to simulate gopuram-like entrances. The top of the mandapa is more or less flat with a large multpetalled lotus surrounding the base of the finial cut over its entre. Behind the maha-mandapa and the antarala stands the principal vimana, its moulded square adhishthana of lesser sides than those of the platform below, occupying the centre o the upa-pitha, while five detached sub-shrines are cut at intervals over the edge of the platform. The three lesser vimanas on the three cardinal sides of the upa-pitha are dvitala sala vimanas, while the two at the rear corners are tritala kuta vimanas. These fige together with the two dummy dvitala kuta vimanas embracinf the hind corners of the maha-mandapa, and the Nandi shrine in front, would complete the full complement of the ashta parivara or shrines of the eight subsidiary deities round the principal vimana, a concept already evolved in the structural temples of the far south. The principal vimana is four-storeyed (chatushtala). The lowermost tala of the superstructure over the aditala with sanctum is projected in front over the antarala to form a gable-like projection called sukanasiks, a characteristic of the southern temples of the Chalukyan series as well as of all their northern prasada temples. Though the talas are square, the griva and sikhara are octagonal, making the vimana conform to the Dravida class of the mixed type. The stupi, now missing, was not part of the monolith. On the four corners of the topmost tala, which is devoid of a hara, are placed four bulls, the cognizant lanchanas. The structureis replete with sculptures of varied iconography. Behind this on the hill are the remains of an unfinished sala-type edifice, monolithic likewise and akin to the Bhima and Ganesarathas of the Pallavas. The monolithic Nandi-mandapa in front of Cave 15 at Ellora with an inscription of Rashtrakuta Dantidurga is perhaps a slightly earlier carved-out monolith in this region.
The smaller and much later Jain monolith version of the Kailasa vimana, also of the Rashtrakuta period at Ellora, is popularly called the Chota Kailasa. There is another chaumukh standing in the forecourt of Cave 33. It is a tritala vimana with square talas and with the aditala having projected, proch-like entrances on the four cardinal sides. The stele is placed at the centre of the sanctum floor of the porch projections carry panjara-like nasika fronts instead of the usual salas of the hara. There are the usual karnakutas at the corners. The second tala has few cardinally projected nasikas and no karnakutas. The top tala has no hara, but has four lions, the cognizant lanchanas at the corners. The griva and sikhara are octagonal, making the cave vimana Dravida of the mixed variety. The monolithic temple complex, called the Chota Kailasa, is not the monolithic chaumukh vimana, in the Indra Sabha forecourt. The Chota Kailasa stands farther away and higher up. It is a Jain replica of the Kailasa (Siva temple complex), with a dvitala vimana having an octagonal sikhara, the sukanasa, leading to an upper shrine in the scond tala over the aditala. The tala prastara is provided with a hara of kutas and salas and the axial extensions in front of the vimana constitute mukhas- and maha- mandapas with a triple entrance, and a dvara-mandapa with sculptures at the entrances leading into the entrenched court.
As against these Pallava and Rashtrakuta creations, the contribution by the contemporary Pandyas of the far south to this series is the exquisitely carved Vettuvankovil monolith at Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli district). It can be dated about AD 800, if not slightly earlier. Unlike the Pallava technique of free cutting or carving down of segmented parts of standing rocks or free-standing boulders of hard rocks, the Pandyas, thoygh they always followed the Pallava tradition of rock architecture in hard stones, adopted in the creadtion of this monolith the tranching technique of the Rashtrakutas as at Ellora. Both the dvitala vimana and its ardha-mandapa cut out of the entrenched mass on the hill slope are incomplete, but the finished parts reveal a high degree of workmanship and art and contain some outstanding sculptures. The talas are square on plan and the griva and sikhara are octagonal. Thus this would be an example in the Dravida order of the misra type. The four Nandis one the corners of the top tala round the base of the griva indicate the date and the dedication of the temples of Siva. The dating is further indicated by the sculptures of Dakshinamurti, Vishnu, Brahma and Siva on the south, west, north and east nasika fronts, respectively, on the faces of the griva sikhara, a feature that became constant from the ninth century onwards.
The bas-relief miniatures found in the famous Arjuna’s penance scene in Mahabalipuram is a typical replica of an ekatala alpa vimana with all the six angas or parts. Viz. the adhishthana (moulded base), pada, or bhitti (pillars or walls), or prastara (entablature with kapota or cornice), griva (neck or clerestory), sikhara (roof), and stupi (finial). Being four-sided and square from base to finial, it belongs to the Nagara class and is dedicated to Vishnu, who is shown in relief as standing inside the cella. The reproduction of the parts of the wooden original is quite obvious. The two bas-relief replicas in miniature on either flank of the façade of the Ramanuja mandapa cave-temple are likewise ekatala, Nagara forms, but with their cella empty. Their adhishthana stands over a larger moulded platform, which would from the upa-pitha, an optional member, often introduced in the design to elevate the height of a vimana.
A similr bas-relief miniature of an ekatala vimana of a hexagonal section from base to apex is depicted inside the front sikhara arch (torana mukhapatti) of the apsidal Nakula-Sahadeva ratha. This with a uniform polugonal plan from base to apex would conform to the pure Dravida class of southern vimanas as described in the texts. Two more identical relief miniatures inside the two arched ekatala vimanas, each with a square body (aditala) over a similar adhishthana carrying over the prastara a circular griva and circular sikhara with stupi, illustrating the Vesara class of the mixed variety since their griva and sikhara parts are circular, though the aditala components below are square in section. What would appear to be tall and column-like dvitala, or two-storeyed forms of the pure Vesara vimanas, circular in section from base to apex, are represented by the identical miniature reliefs found one at either end of the wagon-top sikhara of the Ganesa ratha.
The trimurti cave-temple at Mahabalipuram differs from the other rock-cut mandapa-type cave-temples of the Mahendra or mamalla style, in that it represents only the vimana-or shrine-fronts of three contiguous units in bold relief without the frontal mandapa component. Each unit is complete with the adhishthana having a flight of steps in front, the aditala with excavated shrine-cells and external pilasters, walls and niches, and the prastara with a prominent kapota adorned by kudu arches and the elements of the hara over it, at which stage the top of the rock is reached. Further continuation upwards of these threee apparently dvitala vimana-front is barred by the limited height of the parent rock. The three west-facing shrine-cells contain on their rear walls bas-reliefs of the principal deities. They are a standing Vishnu with devotees in the southern cell, a standing Siva with devotees in the middle cell, and a standing Brahmanya or Brahmasasta in place of Brahma with devotees inside the northern cell. This is a slight variation from the presiding deities of the Mandagappattu cave-temple, which was the first such Pallava temple to be excavated by Mahendra I and which, according to his inscription, was dedicated to the trinity-Vishnu, Siva and Brahma. These icons of Mandagappattu were perhaps painted on the walls of the three niche-like shrines of the cave-temple. The entrances of the three vimana fronts are guarded by appropriate dvarapala figures carved inside the niches. On the rock face to the south of the group is carved a relief of Durga, standing on a severed buffalo-head, the head of the Mahishasura demon. It is inside a niche placed over the moulded adhishthana having a flight of steps in front, as in the adjoining tirmurti shrine. The niche entrance is framed by two pilasters carrying an elaborate torana, while over either extreme corner o the adhishthana platform arecut taller pilasters, the whole scheme appearing to be a replica of the front elevation of the Draupadi ratha but without the hut-like roof carved on top.
The five rathas at the southern end of Mahabalipuram prise a group by themselves. Of these the Draupadi, Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja rathas standing in a line are cut out of a single whale-back rock extending north-south an severed into three convenient sections. The northernmost section of lesser height has been utilized for cutting out the shorter Draupadi ratha and the storeyed Arjuna ratha, with a common platform, or upa-pitha for both, below their separate adhishthanas. The central longer segment with a fairly horizontal top ridge has been appropriately utilized for the oblong Bhima ratha, and the southern taller section, with a broader base too, for the three-storeyed Dharmaraja ratha-all facing west. The fifth ratha-the nakula-Sahadeva ratha which is apsidal or of gaja-prishtha (elephant back) form and the adjoining sculpture of the elephant, both facing south, have been carved out of another smaller rock that stood independently in front on the wst of the Draupadi and Arjuna rathas. Another rock that stood close behind on the east of the Draupadi and Arjuna rahtas was cut down to ground level in order to bring the rear aspects of these two rathas into full view. The central mass that intervened between the two rathas was retained and cut out as a large sculpture of a recumbent Nandi facing west. A small upright free-standing rock just in front of the Draupadi ratha that would have hidden its front view has been shaped into a large sculpture of a standing lion facing north.
Of the other four rathas, the Ganesa ratha has been cut out of a boulder amidst the main hill in Mahabalipuram, and the two Pidari rathas (northern and southern, so called because they are near the modern temple of the village goddess pidari) and the Valaiyankuttai ratha (standing in front of the Valaiyankuttai pond) are shaped out of free-standing bouldersat a distance on the western side of the main hill.
The small Draupadi ratha illustrates the type of a very simple hut-like vimana, square on plan, with only four of the usual six-angas of the vimana, namely. Adhishthana, pada and bhitti, sikhara and stupi, the angas that are lacking being the prastara and griva. This chaturvarga ratha represents the kuta type with a four-sided domical roof, or sikhara, crowned by a single stupi or finial. In having a square platform base to apex, it exemplifies the pure Nagara order. It is dedicated to Durga whose standing sculpture in relief, with attendants, is carved on the rear wall of the sanctum. The main doorway is framed by a fine torana as also the three devakoshthas which also enshrine standing relief sculpture of Durga on the three side walls. On either side of the doorway are flanking dvarapalikas, one on either side in the niche between the corner plaster and torana pilaster framing the entrance. This ratha lack a mukha or ardha-mandapa, unlike the other rathas, as also the nasikas projected from the sikhra.
A dvitala and hence ashtanga, or ashtavarga vimana of the same Nagara order, square from base to apex is illustrated in the incomplete Valaiyankuttai ratha facing east. It has a small ardha-mandapa and the aditala has a single wall, hence it is nirandhara. The prastaras of both the talas carry arpita haras, appliqué on the harmya of the second tala and on the griva above, and made up of four karnakutas at the corners and four salas in between them on each side over each face. There are nasikas on the four sides of the griva sikhara region. The hara at the aditala level is extended also over the top of the ardha-mandapa, a feature of all early vimanas. The kutas and salas over the mandapa are of a smaller size than those over the aditala as usual. This is an example of the elaboration of the talachchanda by the addition of one storey over the ekatala form of six angas illustrated by the bas-relief vimanas which are depicted in Arjuna’s penance sculpture and again at either end of the façade of the Ramanuja mandapam cave-temple. The northern ratha of the twin Pidari rathas, facing northwith its ardha-mandapa, is of the pure Nagara order, with only this difference that there is no hara over the second tala-an advanced feature-making it out as the last of the series in Mahabalipuram and anticipating in this respect the later vimanas of the eighth century. Thegriva sikhara faces are provided with projected nasikas. Both the rathas lack sculptures on their aditala walls and are incomplete.
The incomplete southern Pidari ratha facing east and the more complete Arjuna ratha are likewise double-storeyed, square in section in both the talas and carrying appliqué haras of four karnakutas and four salas at both levels. The griva and sikhara are, however, octagonal in section, making them both ashtanga, nirandhara vimanas of the Dravida order of the composite variety. There arefoure nasikas projected from the four cardinal sides of the griva sikhara. The ardha-mandapa in both the vimanas carries haras of kutas nd salas of a smaller size than those over the aditala.
There are no sculptures on the walls of the northern Pidari ratha, while in the Arjuna ratha the faces of the aditala from adhishthana to prastara are offset thrice, at the two corners an in the middle, and the reliefs contain plain niches carrying fine figure sculpture. The second tala too has sculpture on its walls inside the corner pilasters of each face that are exposed to view on either side of the central sala of the hara in front. The two pillars and two pilasters of the mandapa façade are vyala-based. As in all the above cases, the hara is extended over the mandapa.
The Dharmaraja ratha is three-storeyed, square in its talas and octagonal in the griva sikhara region; but all the three storeys are intended to be functional. Thus the vimana is designed to have three superposed garbha-grihas, as against the non-functional but symbolic upper talas in the other rathas and most of the later structural examples. This is achieved by a cellular mode of construction with three concentric walled squares of increasing height, rising one inside the other to the successive heights of the respective talas, thus leaving interspaces in between. The outer most wall rising to the height of the aditala prastara is, howver, present in sections only round the four corners, te intervening open sides having each a façade of two pilasters and two pilasters, all vyala-based. The haras over the prastara of the three talas are thus detached from the tala walls, and hence anarpita. The small mukha-mandapa on the west in front of the aditala carries a hara which in its composition inclues for the fist time the apsidal nida or panjara along with the kutas and salas. The octagonal griva sikhra region has four projected nasikas on the four cardinal sides. While the lower talas remain unfinished but for their exterior, the topmost tala has a sanctum excavated into it that enshrines a Somaskanda form of Siva, with Vishnu and Brahma in attendance carved on its rear wall. In addition to dvarapalas on either side o the entrance, this tala, like the two lower tala walls, contains in its niches fine sculptures of various gods illustrating varied features of early Pallava iconography. This was perhaps commenced by Mamalla, as indicaed by the label inscribed on the eastern side of the second tala, and was brought to its present stage of completion with the consecration of the top tala by Paramesvaravarman, as the labels on the top tala would denote.
In the Dharmaraja ratha what a apparently looks lik the outer wall of the aditala cantoning the corners leaving open-pillared entrances on the four cardinals, in between, is really the aditala or groundfllor shrine. The pattern is realy one where the wall of the aditala garbha-gridha or cella rises up as the outer wall of the second tala sanctum which is render sandhara with an inner wall, in addition, that rises up higher as the wall of the third tala of leser linear dimensions than the ones below. Thus the Dharmaraja ratha is only pseudo-sandhara on its groundfloor or aditala.
The Bhima and Ganesa rathas illustrate the oblong or ayatasra vimanas of the koshtha- or sala-type, with wagon-top roofs (sala sikharas) carrying a row of stupis, or finials over the ridge as opposed to the kuta or convergent type of sikhara with a single finial in the others. The incomplete Bhima ratha appears to be pseudo-sandhara, like the Dharmaraja ratha, in that its oblong aditala is surrounded by a narrow mandapa with walls round the corners and intervening open facades of two pillars and two pilasters on the long and short sides, the pillars and pilasters being vyala-based. The mandapa carries above its prastara a hara of kutas at the four corners and sala in between, over the sides. The oblong sanctum facing west was perhaps intended for a reclining form of Vishnu with his head to the south and legs to the north. The oblong griva, which rises as an upper continuation of the garbha-griha walls, is rather tall. On each of the two lonf sides of the griva sikhara are five well-projected nasikas in three sizes, the central one being the largest, the extreme ones middling, and the intermediate one being the smallest. The three larger ones represent full nasikas with the prastara element in their composition. The two smallest ones lack the prastara part. The harantara parts between the kutas and salas of the hara circuit have still smaller nasikas than are usual in all the other rathas. Thus this ratha alone would illustrate the various forms of nasikas as described in the texts. The two-storeyed Ganesa ratha is nirandhara, single-walled, and with a narrow mukha-mandapa in front and of the same length as the aditala. The mandapa is walled on its shorter sides and round the front corners leaving an open façade in front, with vyala-based pillars and pilasters. The hara over both the talas as also that over the mandapa contains the kutas and salas alone. There are three projected nasikas on the two longer sides of the griva sikhara region of which the central one is larger with the prastara elementin its make-up and the two lateral ones smaller without that element. The stupis are integral and cut out at the completion of the vimana from the mass left over the ridge unlike in the othr rathas where they are separate insertions. The crest of the two end arches of the sikharas carry, in addition, a trisula finial each, which is the head of three-horned sula deve represented by the face only. Similar sula deva finials, like the stupis were inserted in the case of the Bhima ratha. Except the dvarapalas there are no other sculptures in this ratha. In the façade of this ratha, besides the two vyala-based pillaras, the pilastersof the façade are different, in that another type of mythical animal, a vyala-like form with beaked face, is introduced in the pilaster base. The ratha according to its inscription was originallu dedicated to Siva; the Ganesa idol, now found planted in the cella, is an introduction of very recent times.
The dvitala and wholly apsidal and nirandhara Nakula-Sahadeva ratha well illustrates the dvayasra (two-sided with apseend) or chapa (bow-curve) form also called gaja- or hastiprishtha, in that it resembles the rear of a standing elephant, a large sculpture of which is carved by the side as if to emphasize the resemblance. The chapa form of the Nakula-Sahadeva ratha derives its architectural nomenclature chapa from the fact that the shape of the vimana on plan resembles the U-shaped cuves of a fully drawn bow or chapa. Because of its elliptical shape, though truncated at the front end, this is also classified as of the Vesara order. It has a small open mukha-mandapa in front, of almost the same width as the aditala. The two front pillars are vyala-based an the two rear pilasters are elephant-based. The prastara over the aditala has a hara with two karnakutas at the two front corners, while over the sides and round the rear apse there is a row of salas. The hara on the mandapa too has only kutas and salas. The hara of the second tala, howecer, shows two hidas or panjaras (which are ekataka miniatures of the main vimana) between the two karnakutas on the front face, while the rest of the hara on the sieds and round the curve is made up of salas. The innovation, namely, the addition of the third element, the panjara or nida, in the composition of the hara seems to have been made for the first time here, as over the mukha-mandapa of the Dharmaraja ratha, the stageof completion of which should have been at about the same time as this apsidal ratha. This ratha has no sculpture either inside the sanctum, or on the walls of the talas between the pilasters.
The Pallava vogue of creating cut-out monolithic temple forms was soon caught up, as it were, not nly by the neighbours of the pallavas in south India, but also by others much beyond, and quite a few monolithic temples of the southern and northern types were created in various parts of India, from the Tirunelveli district at the far southern up of the peninsula to the Kangra district in the foot-hills of the Himalayas in the north, from Bihar in the east to Mandsaur in the west and Gwallior in central India- all within the two succeeding centuries.
Following this pioneering work of the Pallava, a few attempts at the cutting out of monolithic vimana forms in the same or succeeding centuries are noticeable in the Eastern Chalukyan region north of the Pallava territory of Tondaimandalam. At Undavalli, immediately to the west of the wel-known four-storeyed cave-temple, the Anantasayanagudi, a projecting section of the rock is cut into a temple form with vimana and front mandapas, the latter fully cut out and the former presented externally in front elevation. The tiered superstructure rises on main hill-face over the top lines of the font mandapas. Internally, the work presents the full aspect of an excavated cave-temple with front halls and a shrine-cell behind. The mandapa façade has two pillars and two pilasters, all of the plaintype. There is a wel-deined kapota on its architrave decorated by kudu arches. The lateral wall of the mukha-mandapa inside has devakoshthas, now empty. Similar niches surmounted by toranas are to be found on the rear wall of the ardha-mandapa on either side of the shrine entrance. The shrine-cell is empty. In the adjoining rock faces bas-relief vimana miniatures are cut, six in number, or varying sizes and much resembling the model bas-reliefs seen in Arjuna’s penance composition and on either side of the Ramanuja mandapam at Mahabalipuram. They are replicas of ekatala Nagara vimanas, square in section from base to apex. The much damaged remains of a monolithic vimana are to be found in Vijayawada, in front of the upper cave-temple of the Vimana.
Akkanna-Madanna group. In the precincts of the apsidal brick temple of Kapotesvara at Chejerla (Guntur district) are to be found a number of miniature shrine models, monolithic in character, evidently of a votive nature? These would also recall similar models found in the temple precincts at Satyavolu, Mahanandi and Alampur in the adjoining Kurnool district. One of the Chejerla models is interesting: in that it shows a completely free-standing pair of pillars for the shrine front.
While the contemporary Western Chalukyas of Badami, who were forging ahead with their structural stone temples, did not take up the carved-out monolithic mode of the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas, who soon replaced the Chalukyas in their own territory, took it up with zest and, among others, created at Ellora the greatest and largest monolithic version of a southern temple complex that is familiarly known as the Kailasa.
This creation of Rashtrakuta Krishna I (756-775) is rather unique. By trenching vertically down into the sloping hill on all sides of a chosen area at right angles up to the base of the rock, an oblong central mass (about 60m x 30m) was isolated and in front of it, beyond the wider front trench, a further trench isolated a narrower transversely oblong mass stretching across like a wall. The larger oblong mass, longer from front to rear than from side to side, afforded the material for carving out the complex of the main vimana and its axial mandapas, as also two tall and stout free- standing monolithic pillars on either side in front surrounded by an open courtyard formed by trenches on all the sides. The fore-court on the front, measuring 90m x 60m, was cut wider than on the sides and it is on the two sides of this that the two monolithic free-standing pillars are found carved. The much narrower, transversely oblong mass in front afforded the material for the carving out of a front gopura entrance, with the two wings of prakara walls on either side. The gopura is double-storeyed with a sala skhara on top and a passage cut through its lower part to provide access to the forecourt in front and the circumambulatory passage round the base of the main vimana complex. The upper storey is connected with the floor of the Nandi-mandapa. This is likewise conceived as a two-storeyed structure with the lower storey solid and non-functional and serving only as a raised platform, despite the external markings of all the architectural features of an aditala, and the upper functional, containing Nandi inside. The main part of the temple beyond consists essentially of vimana containing the sanctum with an antrala, or ardha-mandapa, and a closed maha-mandapa axially in front. The whole axial series is raised over a highly ornate plinth with its top platform supported, as it were, over a frieze of bodly carved fronts of elephants, lions and a numbe of mythological animals. The maha-mandapa is cantoned at its two rear corners by dvitala vimanas of the kuta-type, and has three projected proch-openings on the middle of its south, west and north sides, which are superposed by larger and more raised salas to simulate gopuram-like entrances. The top of the mandapa is more or less flat with a large multpetalled lotus surrounding the base of the finial cut over its entre. Behind the maha-mandapa and the antarala stands the principal vimana, its moulded square adhishthana of lesser sides than those of the platform below, occupying the centre o the upa-pitha, while five detached sub-shrines are cut at intervals over the edge of the platform. The three lesser vimanas on the three cardinal sides of the upa-pitha are dvitala sala vimanas, while the two at the rear corners are tritala kuta vimanas. These fige together with the two dummy dvitala kuta vimanas embracinf the hind corners of the maha-mandapa, and the Nandi shrine in front, would complete the full complement of the ashta parivara or shrines of the eight subsidiary deities round the principal vimana, a concept already evolved in the structural temples of the far south. The principal vimana is four-storeyed (chatushtala). The lowermost tala of the superstructure over the aditala with sanctum is projected in front over the antarala to form a gable-like projection called sukanasiks, a characteristic of the southern temples of the Chalukyan series as well as of all their northern prasada temples. Though the talas are square, the griva and sikhara are octagonal, making the vimana conform to the Dravida class of the mixed type. The stupi, now missing, was not part of the monolith. On the four corners of the topmost tala, which is devoid of a hara, are placed four bulls, the cognizant lanchanas. The structureis replete with sculptures of varied iconography. Behind this on the hill are the remains of an unfinished sala-type edifice, monolithic likewise and akin to the Bhima and Ganesarathas of the Pallavas. The monolithic Nandi-mandapa in front of Cave 15 at Ellora with an inscription of Rashtrakuta Dantidurga is perhaps a slightly earlier carved-out monolith in this region.
The smaller and much later Jain monolith version of the Kailasa vimana, also of the Rashtrakuta period at Ellora, is popularly called the Chota Kailasa. There is another chaumukh standing in the forecourt of Cave 33. It is a tritala vimana with square talas and with the aditala having projected, proch-like entrances on the four cardinal sides. The stele is placed at the centre of the sanctum floor of the porch projections carry panjara-like nasika fronts instead of the usual salas of the hara. There are the usual karnakutas at the corners. The second tala has few cardinally projected nasikas and no karnakutas. The top tala has no hara, but has four lions, the cognizant lanchanas at the corners. The griva and sikhara are octagonal, making the cave vimana Dravida of the mixed variety. The monolithic temple complex, called the Chota Kailasa, is not the monolithic chaumukh vimana, in the Indra Sabha forecourt. The Chota Kailasa stands farther away and higher up. It is a Jain replica of the Kailasa (Siva temple complex), with a dvitala vimana having an octagonal sikhara, the sukanasa, leading to an upper shrine in the scond tala over the aditala. The tala prastara is provided with a hara of kutas and salas and the axial extensions in front of the vimana constitute mukhas- and maha- mandapas with a triple entrance, and a dvara-mandapa with sculptures at the entrances leading into the entrenched court.
As against these Pallava and Rashtrakuta creations, the contribution by the contemporary Pandyas of the far south to this series is the exquisitely carved Vettuvankovil monolith at Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli district). It can be dated about AD 800, if not slightly earlier. Unlike the Pallava technique of free cutting or carving down of segmented parts of standing rocks or free-standing boulders of hard rocks, the Pandyas, thoygh they always followed the Pallava tradition of rock architecture in hard stones, adopted in the creadtion of this monolith the tranching technique of the Rashtrakutas as at Ellora. Both the dvitala vimana and its ardha-mandapa cut out of the entrenched mass on the hill slope are incomplete, but the finished parts reveal a high degree of workmanship and art and contain some outstanding sculptures. The talas are square on plan and the griva and sikhara are octagonal. Thus this would be an example in the Dravida order of the misra type. The four Nandis one the corners of the top tala round the base of the griva indicate the date and the dedication of the temples of Siva. The dating is further indicated by the sculptures of Dakshinamurti, Vishnu, Brahma and Siva on the south, west, north and east nasika fronts, respectively, on the faces of the griva sikhara, a feature that became constant from the ninth century onwards.
