The Granite of the Pallavs – Mahabalipuram
 Photo by : bubble_boy in Flickr |
The Pallavs in eastern India carved their sculptures in granite. The cave temples and rock-sculptures in Mahabalipuram and the temple in Kanchipuram are perennial testimonies to their political achievements and their architectural daring.
We distinguish two kinds of Pallav cave temples, depending on the king commissioning them: King Mahendra (or Mahendravarman I, ca. 580-630) and King Mamalla (ca. 630-668). The cave temples of the Mahendra era look like experiments, with short, thick pillars at the entrance and thick ‘beams’. We find these cave temples scattered all over the Pallav area. Mandappattu is the oldest Mahendra cave temple; in an inscription he proudly relates that he is the "first to ‘build’ a dweling for Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva without using stone and mortar". The Mahendra type of cave temple was imitated in later generations, and by other dynasties. The Mamalla cave temples, on the other hand, are found only in mahabalipuram. The pillars are less massive, they are round or polygonal and usually have a lion or vyal (composite fantastic animal) as basis. The distance between the pillars is also greater.
Granite is hard and we do not find in the Pallav cave temples the detailed sculptures of eg. Badami. The sculptures are mainly bas-reliefs, often of giant size. We know that minor details were sometimes added in plaster-work. Only at a later stage did the Pallavs add the varpals (door guardian) and reliefs on the exterior walls. Only rarely do we find a Lingam inside the shrine: originally, it must have been a stucco Lingam or even a painting, now not present. A Lingam was never an original part of the rockstructure because the small cannal for sacred water is nowhere to be seen. In the cave temples of the Pandya dynasty (Madurai) the Lingam and sometimes even the Bull Nandi are part of the original rockformation. The painting or wooden image in the earliest Pallav cave temples was later on replaced by a bas-relief in the wall of the shrine or, still later, by a standing figure. It is not rare to find a Lingam made from different stone.
Scripta manent. This applies also to the work done in stone in the Mahabalipuram area. The cave temples replaced the wooden shrines that have now disappeared. The hard work of stonecarving was undertaken only for making religious dwellings. No secular dwellings, either cut in stone or built with stone have been discovered.
The rock carving was not as easy as e.g. in western India, where the formations yield parallel piece. Several cave temples were not completed by the Pallavs, thus allowing later researchers and tourists to study the procedure. They cut and carved for generations. When a plan for a particular cave temple was made, it may well have been completed only during the lifetime of the next generation. First, the ‘pillars’ were marked and in between shafts were cut, sometimes 4 meters deep. Apparently, they cut first the circumference of a square (ca. 0.5 meter in diameter), a few cm deep, and then worked towards the centre of that square. We can imagine that several teams worked at the same time: inside the rough cutting and clearing, outside the refined sculptors. We see the remains of this teamwork in several cave temples: the refined sculptures outside have been completed, while the cave temple is not fully excavated on the inside.
Because of the hardness can composition of the granite, sculptors could not achieve detailed results as in other parts of India at that time. It may well be that the stone sculptors were initially wood or ivory carvers, who changed their chisels. The pillars of the early period are massive, without the refinement one may find in wooden pillars. But the constant attempt to imitate wooden structures gives us an idea of how wooden buildings in those days must have looked. The five Rathas at Mahabalipuram are nice examples of contemporary wooden structures. In some cave temples we can even see crossbeams which in no way functioned to ‘support the structure. Even ‘nails’ have been carved in the rock!
The Pallav cave temples (unlike eg. the cave temples in Badami) consist of one single cella (Tri-Murti in Mahabalipuram) or a cella with portal. The façade is often broader than the depth of the cave. As they made progress, the Pallavs cut out more ‘structural’ designs, like cross-beams and gutters, domes and terraces. In many places in India, quite understandably, most religious sites and buildings are situated near a river or a lake. The first Pallav king, Mahendra, also selected hill-tops where, often, a Jain shrine was built. This phenomenon is related to the revival of Brahmanism and the disappearance of Jainism in the area.
The Pallav Dvarpals (door guardian) have two arms and are often sculpted in profile. Only the Dvarpals of Shvia shrines often have horns. At the entrance of Durga shrines we can see female Dvarpals.
With only a few exceptions, all cave temples and the Rathas in Mahabalipuram are commissioned by King Mamalla (reigned 630-668); some were completed in his style, after his death.
The Incomplete Mandap (1) is an interesting structure because the Vyals or monsters in the pillars are in different stadia of completion. Apparently, the sculptors wanted to cut a corridor around the central shrine. Was the project stopped - after many years of cutting - because there were weak spots in the rock? It is dated towards the end of the reign of King Mamalla.
The Kaneri Mandap, a little to the south (2) is dedicated to Shiva and has five cellas. Because of the slope of the rockformation, the stone-cutters had to take away more rock below than on top. As a result, they obtained a vertical façade and at the same time a platform in front of the temple. They calculated so well that they still retained a kind of gutter on top. The pillars are more elegant and thinner than in the cave temples of the King Mahendra type. In the second portal several corners are not completed. The two rows of pillars are totoally different in design. Judging from the rather heavy pillars near the entrance, we may conclude that this cave temple is of the early King Mamalla period. At the entrance of each shrine there are two Dvarpals, each one different from the other. Each cella has a pedestal, on which probably stood an image of the deity (in a different stone, added later?). In the backwall there is a niche, in which a wooden panel or an image may have been put. It is likely that each niche had some form of Shiva image, because we have Dvarpals with horns. And later on, worshippers of Vishnu may have taken over the shrine; they carved the Eagle Garud in the façade. The Pulipudar Mandap (3) is not complete. It may have been intended to excavate five cellas.
For the Varah mandap (4) the stone-cutters selected a nearly vertical rockformation. The choice of the bas-reliefs of this temple dedicated to Vishnu as Varah (the Boar), descending to save the Earth, is not accidental. Like the Chalukya kings, the Pallav kings identified themselves with the triumphant Vishnu as Narsinha, Man-Lion, killing the demon Hiranyakashipu, or of Vishnu as Varah (the Boar), saving the Earth from the underworld, or of the glorious cosmic Vishnu as Vaman, the Dwarf, encompassing the three worlds. Another symbol of triumph for them was mahish-asur-mardini Durga, killing the demon Mahish. And finally, the presence of the Lakshmi panel, consort of Vishnu and goddess of wealth, symbolizes their desire for success via wealth.
In the left wall of the portal we see a beautiful Varah relief. Cutfrom granite Vishnu as the Boar gently lifts the goddess Earth from the underworld. We can hardly see the transition from the human neck into the boar’s neck. In his hands Vishnu Varah holds a disc and a conch, with hisother hands he tenderly holds the Earth. His right foot stands on the hood of the snake Shesh, while his left foot rises to get out of the underworld. Shesh has a human head and five hoods, and rises from the water. With his snout Varah touches the breast of the Earth (here ‘blouse’ has dropped). On the left behind Vishnu stands Brahma, with three heads, and also (possibly) Narad, god of music and poetry, with a musical instrument. Above Vishnu, we see the god Chandra, Moon, with folded hands, and the god Surya, Sun, coming out of the clouds.
On the right in the portal is the Vaman relief. Here Vishnu as the Dwarf is represented as having already passed through two of the three worlds. Up to his knees he stands in the underworld, up to his navel in the middle-world. In his three right hands he holds a disc, a mace and a sword; in his three left hands he hold a conch, a ketak flower and a bow. On his right Shiva is seated, also with four arms; like Brahma he too is on the level of Vishnu’s head, that is in the heavens. Between Vishnu’s head and Brahma we see Jambavan, with the head of a bear, beating a drum. On the level of Vishnu’s navel, that is one the level of the atmosphere, we see the Sun and the Moon.
In the left niche of the portal stands Gaj-Lakshmi, Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi with the elephant. This relief radiates total peace. She sits on a lotus, in the company of celestial nymphs, and on top two elephants. The elephant on the right holds a pot above the head of Lakshmi.
In the right niche stands Durga, erect and stiff. On her right a devotee beheads himself. On top, right, we see a lion and an antelope. No Dvarpal here has horns, because it is a Vishnu shrine. The Ganesh Rath (5) is a monolithic temple, earlier dedicated to Shiva. Now there is an image of Ganesh, Shiva;s son. The bases of the pillars are lions. In the portal we can see how cuttings in the rock were made to smooth the granite. The roof is clearly an imitation of a wooden structure. In the inscription it says that the temple was completed by king Parameshvar-Varman I.
The Giant Relief (6) is called ‘Descent of the Ganges’ (or also sometimes ‘The Penance of Arjun’). This masterpiece (27x9 meters) faces east and the rising sun. The main theme of the relief is probably the gratitude of men and animals for Shiva’s gift of the Ganges (see above: 3. Shiva the great Lord) This piece of art is very Hindu in its concept: all beings, of the earth and of the heavens, appear in one unity. Everything in this universe in alive, only the degree of life is different. To the south of the crevice (your left) we see human and animal figures, in actual size, watching a central group near the crevice. There an ascetic stands near Shiva (with four hands). Underneath we see a Vishnu shrine and a number of ascetics in different postures. To the north of the crevice (your right) stand Nag figures, half man and half snake. There is also a very ascetic cat! The figures on top, this side, may be king Mahendra with three ladies.
A little to the south of the Giant Relief is the Five Pandavs Manap (7). It is incomplete but certainly was a very ambitious project, considering its vast groundplan and the pillars on Vyal bases. Further down the road is the Krishna mandap (8), cut out from the same rockformation. Remarkable here is the bas-relief of Krishna lifting Mount Govardhan to protect the Braj area against the torrential rains of the god Indra. The sculpture of the life-size bull is a masterpiece.
The Shore Temple (9) is a beautiful site to end the day with. It is dated to King Narsinha-varman I Rajsinha (ca. 700-728). The tower above the cella has different storeys,w ith miniature models of buildings. In one shrine we see Shiva with his consort Uma and his son Skanda, in the other shrine stands ‘Vishnu on the cosmic ocean’. In the Mahish-asur-mardini cave temple (11) we see elegant pillars of the Mamalla style. The secondfrom the right too is damaged, possibly also because somebody tried to remove it. At a later date the shrine was changed into a place of worship for Vishnu (see the Garud emblems), and they possibly wanted to make a bigger shrine. The basis of the pillars is a lion, not a Vyal monster.
In the backwall there is a large relief of the Soma-Skanda group, seated on a throne, with - exceptionally - the bull Nandi sitting below. Shiva has four arms, Parvati has two arms and holds the baby Skanda in here lap. Their legs ‘rest’ on Nandi. On the south side stands Brahma, with his hands respectfully folded for Shiva. On the north stands Vishnu, and between him and Shiva we see the Sun God Surya, who is only rarely present in a Soma-Skanda group. It would appear that in this early period of iconography Shiva is mainly represented with his family, while Vishnu, Brahma and Surya are worshipped at the same time. The Lingam may be of a later date. Only one of the Dvarpals (door guardian) has the typical horns.
In the northern wall stands the impressive relief of Mahish-asur-mardini Durga, killing the demon Mahish. She sits on her lion and has eight arms; she holds a bow and wields a sword and dagger. The image of the demon, standing, is of exquisite quality.
In the southern wall is a fine relief of Vishnu on the Snake Adhisheh. The two demons at his feet are called Madhu and Kaitabh; they are ready to attack. Underneath the feet of Vishnu is the goddess Earth, Bhu, praying. The Snake Adishesh, in this sculpture, does not appear to be frightening. Vishnu too is an example of rest and peace, in contrast to Durga in the other wall. The female figure above is possibly the goddess Sleep (Nidra) flying away in order to Vishnu to awake and start the fight with the demons.
The Ramanuj Mandap (12) is named after the great philosopher Ramanuj, a devotee of Vishnu who lived ca. 1100. This cave temple must have been completed before it was partly destroyed. On the ceiling of the central shrine we can see the remains of plasterwork.
Devotees still come to the Adi-varah temple (13), dedicated to Vishnu as Varah, the Boar who saved the goddess Earth. We see panels of Gaj-Lakshmi and of Mahish-asur-mardini Durga, and in the main shrine there is a stucco bas-relief of Varah. Looking at the panels on both sides of the entrance to the shrine, we have (from north to south): Shiva Gangadhar, allowing the goddess Earth to descend to earth on the strands of his long hair. A king (Mamalla?) with two queens in transparent dress.
Devi
A figure with five cobra-hoods, possibly Adi-shesh.
Vishnu
Dvarpals
Harihar, or Shiva and Vishnu.
Durga, in total contrast to the peaceful Lakshmi on the other side. Heer, one of the devotees slashes his own wrist.
A king with two queens.
Brahma.
In the Dharma-Raj Mandap (14), too, the Dvarpals have been removed, ppssibly by worshippers in a later period. There are three shrines, but there are no traces of bas-reliefs. In the inscription, Shiva is praised and the name of the King (Parameshvar-varman I, ca. 672-700) is given. Scholars do not agree about the identity of this; it would be the only cave temple in Mahabalipuram not commissioned by King Mamalla. The style of the pillars is of Mamalla. In three other temples we find a similar inscription. Was he a usurper, or was the inscription added later on? In any case the devotees of Vishnu came here too (13th century onwards?), adding their own emblems. Local tradition has given to the Five Rathas (15) the names of the five Pandav brothers of the Mahabharat epic, Arjun, Bhim, Yudhisthir, nakul and Sahdev, and their wife Draupadi. All Rathas (literally: temple-chariot) are attributed to King Mamalla. Were these huge monoliths separate boulders or part of one big monolith? They are clearly copies of existing wooden structures; each of them looks like a prototype of later temple architecture. For a long time the site was neglected rubble, till the Archaeological Services cleared and cleaned it.
The Draupadi Rath (1) looks like an ascetic’s house, with a roof of palm-leaves. On the sides we see a lion (mount of Durga) and the Bull Nandi.
The Arjun Rath (11) was perhaps dedicated to Indra: his mount, the elephant Airavat, stands in front of the shrine. There are further beautiful reliefs of Shiva, Nandi and royal figures. Vishnu as Vaman (the Dwarf) and as Varah (the Boar) TheBhim Rath (III) is a combination of a set of pillars with a roof-structure which reminds one of the (still existing) huts of tribal Todas in Kerala.
The Dharm-raj Rath (IV) has an inscription suggesting in the period in which it was made: King Nar-sinha-varman I, or King mamalla, ca. 630-668. Even in the hard granite the sculptors managed to give the king a gentle face. There are three storeys with miniatureshrines, and an octagonal spire. In its structure and even minute details this Rath seems to be imitated in the Kailash-nath temple of Kanchipuram.
The extraordinary Hundred Pillar hall, built by the Vijaynagar Dynasty in the 12th century, is part of the Vad-raj temple. The (in reality) 96 pillars have exquisite figures. The spire of the temple too is probably of Vijaynagar origin. Inside, in the afternoon, there are regular Veda recitations.
The Vaikunth-Perumal or Venkat-nath temple, built ca. 740, is dedicated to Vishnu. On the outer walls there is an encyclopaedic abundance of beautiful images of Vishnu in his different incarnations Ardh-Mandap West: Brahma, Vishnu etc.
North: Vishnu Varah, standing Vishnu.
South: standing Vishnu Vaman.
Shrine
West: Vishnu, Vishnu Vaman (with 8 arms), Virat-Vishnu
North: Vishnu on Garud, Vishnu teaching Shiva Gajendra-Moksha, Vishnu Narsinha with 8 arms.
East: Vishnu, Krishna lifting Mount Govardhan Vishnu as Ramchandra, Krishna killing the snake Kaliya.
South: Tri-Murti (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva) Vishnu as Buddha, standing Vishnu Narsinha, Vishnu Varah, Vishnu as Mohini.
Vishnu on Garud, Vishnu on Sheshnag fighting Madhu and Kaitabh, Brahma.
In the Ekambareshwar temple there is a remarkable ‘Thousand Pillar Hall’ (with 540 pillars). The beautiful Kailash-nath temple outside of town is a wonderfully well preserved example of fine temple architecture. The temple is dedicated to Shiva, Lord of Kailash. Below, I have listed the most important sculptures. Murti stands for ‘image’.
Somaskanda
Shiva Dakshina Murti or ‘Teacher of the South’
Shiva Yog-dakshina Murti
Shiva Lingodbhav, ‘appearing in his own Linga’
Shiva mahendra, the great Lord
Shiva Uma-sahit-sukhasan Murti, ‘peacefully sitting with ‘Uma’
Durga
Shiva Yogin
Ganpati (or Ganesh, son of Shiva)
Subrahmanya (or kartikey, son of Shiva)
Kirat-Arjun (Shiva and Arjun)
Brahma
Shiva Bhikshatan Murti, Krishna temple I
Shiva Tripur-antak, ‘destroying the demons of the three cities’
Pashupat-astra-dan or Kirat-Arjun
hairav
Shiva Vishnu-anugarh Murti or ‘Vishnu worshipping Shiva’
Kalyan-sundar Murti (marriage of Shiva and Parvati)
Granite is hard and we do not find in the Pallav cave temples the detailed sculptures of eg. Badami. The sculptures are mainly bas-reliefs, often of giant size. We know that minor details were sometimes added in plaster-work. Only at a later stage did the Pallavs add the varpals (door guardian) and reliefs on the exterior walls. Only rarely do we find a Lingam inside the shrine: originally, it must have been a stucco Lingam or even a painting, now not present. A Lingam was never an original part of the rockstructure because the small cannal for sacred water is nowhere to be seen. In the cave temples of the Pandya dynasty (Madurai) the Lingam and sometimes even the Bull Nandi are part of the original rockformation. The painting or wooden image in the earliest Pallav cave temples was later on replaced by a bas-relief in the wall of the shrine or, still later, by a standing figure. It is not rare to find a Lingam made from different stone.
Scripta manent. This applies also to the work done in stone in the Mahabalipuram area. The cave temples replaced the wooden shrines that have now disappeared. The hard work of stonecarving was undertaken only for making religious dwellings. No secular dwellings, either cut in stone or built with stone have been discovered.
The rock carving was not as easy as e.g. in western India, where the formations yield parallel piece. Several cave temples were not completed by the Pallavs, thus allowing later researchers and tourists to study the procedure. They cut and carved for generations. When a plan for a particular cave temple was made, it may well have been completed only during the lifetime of the next generation. First, the ‘pillars’ were marked and in between shafts were cut, sometimes 4 meters deep. Apparently, they cut first the circumference of a square (ca. 0.5 meter in diameter), a few cm deep, and then worked towards the centre of that square. We can imagine that several teams worked at the same time: inside the rough cutting and clearing, outside the refined sculptors. We see the remains of this teamwork in several cave temples: the refined sculptures outside have been completed, while the cave temple is not fully excavated on the inside.
Because of the hardness can composition of the granite, sculptors could not achieve detailed results as in other parts of India at that time. It may well be that the stone sculptors were initially wood or ivory carvers, who changed their chisels. The pillars of the early period are massive, without the refinement one may find in wooden pillars. But the constant attempt to imitate wooden structures gives us an idea of how wooden buildings in those days must have looked. The five Rathas at Mahabalipuram are nice examples of contemporary wooden structures. In some cave temples we can even see crossbeams which in no way functioned to ‘support the structure. Even ‘nails’ have been carved in the rock!
The Pallav cave temples (unlike eg. the cave temples in Badami) consist of one single cella (Tri-Murti in Mahabalipuram) or a cella with portal. The façade is often broader than the depth of the cave. As they made progress, the Pallavs cut out more ‘structural’ designs, like cross-beams and gutters, domes and terraces. In many places in India, quite understandably, most religious sites and buildings are situated near a river or a lake. The first Pallav king, Mahendra, also selected hill-tops where, often, a Jain shrine was built. This phenomenon is related to the revival of Brahmanism and the disappearance of Jainism in the area.
The Pallav Dvarpals (door guardian) have two arms and are often sculpted in profile. Only the Dvarpals of Shvia shrines often have horns. At the entrance of Durga shrines we can see female Dvarpals.
With only a few exceptions, all cave temples and the Rathas in Mahabalipuram are commissioned by King Mamalla (reigned 630-668); some were completed in his style, after his death.
The Incomplete Mandap (1) is an interesting structure because the Vyals or monsters in the pillars are in different stadia of completion. Apparently, the sculptors wanted to cut a corridor around the central shrine. Was the project stopped - after many years of cutting - because there were weak spots in the rock? It is dated towards the end of the reign of King Mamalla.
The Kaneri Mandap, a little to the south (2) is dedicated to Shiva and has five cellas. Because of the slope of the rockformation, the stone-cutters had to take away more rock below than on top. As a result, they obtained a vertical façade and at the same time a platform in front of the temple. They calculated so well that they still retained a kind of gutter on top. The pillars are more elegant and thinner than in the cave temples of the King Mahendra type. In the second portal several corners are not completed. The two rows of pillars are totoally different in design. Judging from the rather heavy pillars near the entrance, we may conclude that this cave temple is of the early King Mamalla period. At the entrance of each shrine there are two Dvarpals, each one different from the other. Each cella has a pedestal, on which probably stood an image of the deity (in a different stone, added later?). In the backwall there is a niche, in which a wooden panel or an image may have been put. It is likely that each niche had some form of Shiva image, because we have Dvarpals with horns. And later on, worshippers of Vishnu may have taken over the shrine; they carved the Eagle Garud in the façade. The Pulipudar Mandap (3) is not complete. It may have been intended to excavate five cellas.
For the Varah mandap (4) the stone-cutters selected a nearly vertical rockformation. The choice of the bas-reliefs of this temple dedicated to Vishnu as Varah (the Boar), descending to save the Earth, is not accidental. Like the Chalukya kings, the Pallav kings identified themselves with the triumphant Vishnu as Narsinha, Man-Lion, killing the demon Hiranyakashipu, or of Vishnu as Varah (the Boar), saving the Earth from the underworld, or of the glorious cosmic Vishnu as Vaman, the Dwarf, encompassing the three worlds. Another symbol of triumph for them was mahish-asur-mardini Durga, killing the demon Mahish. And finally, the presence of the Lakshmi panel, consort of Vishnu and goddess of wealth, symbolizes their desire for success via wealth.
In the left wall of the portal we see a beautiful Varah relief. Cutfrom granite Vishnu as the Boar gently lifts the goddess Earth from the underworld. We can hardly see the transition from the human neck into the boar’s neck. In his hands Vishnu Varah holds a disc and a conch, with hisother hands he tenderly holds the Earth. His right foot stands on the hood of the snake Shesh, while his left foot rises to get out of the underworld. Shesh has a human head and five hoods, and rises from the water. With his snout Varah touches the breast of the Earth (here ‘blouse’ has dropped). On the left behind Vishnu stands Brahma, with three heads, and also (possibly) Narad, god of music and poetry, with a musical instrument. Above Vishnu, we see the god Chandra, Moon, with folded hands, and the god Surya, Sun, coming out of the clouds.
On the right in the portal is the Vaman relief. Here Vishnu as the Dwarf is represented as having already passed through two of the three worlds. Up to his knees he stands in the underworld, up to his navel in the middle-world. In his three right hands he holds a disc, a mace and a sword; in his three left hands he hold a conch, a ketak flower and a bow. On his right Shiva is seated, also with four arms; like Brahma he too is on the level of Vishnu’s head, that is in the heavens. Between Vishnu’s head and Brahma we see Jambavan, with the head of a bear, beating a drum. On the level of Vishnu’s navel, that is one the level of the atmosphere, we see the Sun and the Moon.
In the left niche of the portal stands Gaj-Lakshmi, Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi with the elephant. This relief radiates total peace. She sits on a lotus, in the company of celestial nymphs, and on top two elephants. The elephant on the right holds a pot above the head of Lakshmi.
In the right niche stands Durga, erect and stiff. On her right a devotee beheads himself. On top, right, we see a lion and an antelope. No Dvarpal here has horns, because it is a Vishnu shrine. The Ganesh Rath (5) is a monolithic temple, earlier dedicated to Shiva. Now there is an image of Ganesh, Shiva;s son. The bases of the pillars are lions. In the portal we can see how cuttings in the rock were made to smooth the granite. The roof is clearly an imitation of a wooden structure. In the inscription it says that the temple was completed by king Parameshvar-Varman I.
The Giant Relief (6) is called ‘Descent of the Ganges’ (or also sometimes ‘The Penance of Arjun’). This masterpiece (27x9 meters) faces east and the rising sun. The main theme of the relief is probably the gratitude of men and animals for Shiva’s gift of the Ganges (see above: 3. Shiva the great Lord) This piece of art is very Hindu in its concept: all beings, of the earth and of the heavens, appear in one unity. Everything in this universe in alive, only the degree of life is different. To the south of the crevice (your left) we see human and animal figures, in actual size, watching a central group near the crevice. There an ascetic stands near Shiva (with four hands). Underneath we see a Vishnu shrine and a number of ascetics in different postures. To the north of the crevice (your right) stand Nag figures, half man and half snake. There is also a very ascetic cat! The figures on top, this side, may be king Mahendra with three ladies.
A little to the south of the Giant Relief is the Five Pandavs Manap (7). It is incomplete but certainly was a very ambitious project, considering its vast groundplan and the pillars on Vyal bases. Further down the road is the Krishna mandap (8), cut out from the same rockformation. Remarkable here is the bas-relief of Krishna lifting Mount Govardhan to protect the Braj area against the torrential rains of the god Indra. The sculpture of the life-size bull is a masterpiece.
The Shore Temple (9) is a beautiful site to end the day with. It is dated to King Narsinha-varman I Rajsinha (ca. 700-728). The tower above the cella has different storeys,w ith miniature models of buildings. In one shrine we see Shiva with his consort Uma and his son Skanda, in the other shrine stands ‘Vishnu on the cosmic ocean’. In the Mahish-asur-mardini cave temple (11) we see elegant pillars of the Mamalla style. The secondfrom the right too is damaged, possibly also because somebody tried to remove it. At a later date the shrine was changed into a place of worship for Vishnu (see the Garud emblems), and they possibly wanted to make a bigger shrine. The basis of the pillars is a lion, not a Vyal monster.
In the backwall there is a large relief of the Soma-Skanda group, seated on a throne, with - exceptionally - the bull Nandi sitting below. Shiva has four arms, Parvati has two arms and holds the baby Skanda in here lap. Their legs ‘rest’ on Nandi. On the south side stands Brahma, with his hands respectfully folded for Shiva. On the north stands Vishnu, and between him and Shiva we see the Sun God Surya, who is only rarely present in a Soma-Skanda group. It would appear that in this early period of iconography Shiva is mainly represented with his family, while Vishnu, Brahma and Surya are worshipped at the same time. The Lingam may be of a later date. Only one of the Dvarpals (door guardian) has the typical horns.
In the northern wall stands the impressive relief of Mahish-asur-mardini Durga, killing the demon Mahish. She sits on her lion and has eight arms; she holds a bow and wields a sword and dagger. The image of the demon, standing, is of exquisite quality.
In the southern wall is a fine relief of Vishnu on the Snake Adhisheh. The two demons at his feet are called Madhu and Kaitabh; they are ready to attack. Underneath the feet of Vishnu is the goddess Earth, Bhu, praying. The Snake Adishesh, in this sculpture, does not appear to be frightening. Vishnu too is an example of rest and peace, in contrast to Durga in the other wall. The female figure above is possibly the goddess Sleep (Nidra) flying away in order to Vishnu to awake and start the fight with the demons.
The Ramanuj Mandap (12) is named after the great philosopher Ramanuj, a devotee of Vishnu who lived ca. 1100. This cave temple must have been completed before it was partly destroyed. On the ceiling of the central shrine we can see the remains of plasterwork.
Devotees still come to the Adi-varah temple (13), dedicated to Vishnu as Varah, the Boar who saved the goddess Earth. We see panels of Gaj-Lakshmi and of Mahish-asur-mardini Durga, and in the main shrine there is a stucco bas-relief of Varah. Looking at the panels on both sides of the entrance to the shrine, we have (from north to south): Shiva Gangadhar, allowing the goddess Earth to descend to earth on the strands of his long hair.
In the Dharma-Raj Mandap (14), too, the Dvarpals have been removed, ppssibly by worshippers in a later period. There are three shrines, but there are no traces of bas-reliefs. In the inscription, Shiva is praised and the name of the King (Parameshvar-varman I, ca. 672-700) is given. Scholars do not agree about the identity of this; it would be the only cave temple in Mahabalipuram not commissioned by King Mamalla. The style of the pillars is of Mamalla. In three other temples we find a similar inscription. Was he a usurper, or was the inscription added later on? In any case the devotees of Vishnu came here too (13th century onwards?), adding their own emblems. Local tradition has given to the Five Rathas (15) the names of the five Pandav brothers of the Mahabharat epic, Arjun, Bhim, Yudhisthir, nakul and Sahdev, and their wife Draupadi. All Rathas (literally: temple-chariot) are attributed to King Mamalla. Were these huge monoliths separate boulders or part of one big monolith? They are clearly copies of existing wooden structures; each of them looks like a prototype of later temple architecture. For a long time the site was neglected rubble, till the Archaeological Services cleared and cleaned it.
The Draupadi Rath (1) looks like an ascetic’s house, with a roof of palm-leaves. On the sides we see a lion (mount of Durga) and the Bull Nandi.
The Arjun Rath (11) was perhaps dedicated to Indra: his mount, the elephant Airavat, stands in front of the shrine. There are further beautiful reliefs of Shiva, Nandi and royal figures. Vishnu as Vaman (the Dwarf) and as Varah (the Boar) TheBhim Rath (III) is a combination of a set of pillars with a roof-structure which reminds one of the (still existing) huts of tribal Todas in Kerala.
The Dharm-raj Rath (IV) has an inscription suggesting in the period in which it was made: King Nar-sinha-varman I, or King mamalla, ca. 630-668. Even in the hard granite the sculptors managed to give the king a gentle face. There are three storeys with miniatureshrines, and an octagonal spire. In its structure and even minute details this Rath seems to be imitated in the Kailash-nath temple of Kanchipuram.
Kanchipuram
The ‘golden city’ was the centre of Pallav power from 300 onwards. The place is one of the oldest in South India and is often called the ‘Benares of the South’. In the 3rd century B.C. the emperor Ashoka erected here is memorial stones. A few centuries later the Cholas were present here. Through their port at Mahabalipuram the Pallavs of Kanchipuram traveled all over southeast Asia and left their traces on distant shores. When the Chinese Hsuan Tsang (ca. 640) visited southern India. Kanchipuram was a flourishing Buddhist centre, with more than 100 monasteries. The Pallavs also occupied Badami, but in their turn they were defeated by the Chalukyas and by other rivals. In later years the Vijaynagar dynasty too left its mark in Kanchipuram.The extraordinary Hundred Pillar hall, built by the Vijaynagar Dynasty in the 12th century, is part of the Vad-raj temple. The (in reality) 96 pillars have exquisite figures. The spire of the temple too is probably of Vijaynagar origin. Inside, in the afternoon, there are regular Veda recitations.
The Vaikunth-Perumal or Venkat-nath temple, built ca. 740, is dedicated to Vishnu. On the outer walls there is an encyclopaedic abundance of beautiful images of Vishnu in his different incarnations Ardh-Mandap
In the Ekambareshwar temple there is a remarkable ‘Thousand Pillar Hall’ (with 540 pillars). The beautiful Kailash-nath temple outside of town is a wonderfully well preserved example of fine temple architecture. The temple is dedicated to Shiva, Lord of Kailash. Below, I have listed the most important sculptures. Murti stands for ‘image’.
