The Cholas: Rich Entrepreneurs – Thanjavur
Towards the end of the first millennium the Chola dynasty became a great power in South India. In three places mainly they built huge temples: Thanjavur (King Raj-raj, 985-1012), Gangaikonda-cholapuram (King Rajendra, 1012-1044) and Darasuram (Kings Vir-Rajendra, 1063-1069 and Raj-raj II, 1150-1173). King Rajendra built a powerful fleet and extended his influence to Burma, Malaisia, Java and Sumtra. In India he campaigned as far as the Ganges in North India and to celebrate this triumph he founded a new capital, named Gangai-konda-chola-puram or ‘The city of the Chola king who brought the Ganges’. On the inauguration day the vassals were requested only to bring Ganges water all the way to the city and fill a tank with it. The ambitious King Rajendra also built a big temple for Shiva there.
The Cholas made good use of the architectural achievements of their predecessors. With the huge capital they had ‘gathered’ they attracted artisans and stone-cutters from other regions and with a creative genius they contributed much to the development of architecture. With the Pallavs the central shrine of the temple was small: the Cholas made the spire above the shrine a gigantic structure. With the Pallavs the gopuram (gate-house) was rather small. In Chola temple compounds the gopuram is sometimes even bigger than the central spire. The Dvarpals, important figures in the Pallav temples, have two arms and look gentle. In the Chola temples they have form arms and look fierce. Around 1239 the Cholas suffered a defeat in a battle against the Pandyas of Madurai, who took superiority in the region.
If you find a quiet corner somewhere, sit down and dream about the days, in the 12th c., when worship in this temple attracted huge crowds (as in Madurai today). For most of them this was the tallest building on earth. There wasdancing, singing and music. Loads of flowers were distributed or sold. The musicians, drummers, dancing-girls and instructors were given donations by royal patrons. Stone cutters, sculptors and wood-carvers, painters and poets, cooks, security people and, last but not least, persons in charge of collecting the money: all were part of this temple. They joined for a temporary assignment or had a ‘tenure’ job. If you can go back to those days, the Thanjavur temple is not just an architectural monument: it is a happening, an inspiration gone but still testifying to the greatness of the dynastic power and of the devotion of the people. It is good not to remember that much of the rice production and of the military loot were required for this construction.
Granite, dragged to this place on bullockcarts is the basic material of the Brihadeshvar temple. Like a fortress, the compound is surrounded by a tall wall, and on one side flows the Kaveri River. Some of the fortifying structures were built by the French in 1777, with blocks taken from temples in the neighbourhood!
Going through the big gate (east), you arrive at a second, smaller gopuram (gate-house) where two impressive Dvarpals (door guardians) testify to the greatness of the Cholas. On the walls we can see beautiful friezes, depicting episodes in the life of Shiva: the marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Shiva protecting Markandey, Arujn acquiring the Pashupat bow. In a pavilion on the main square inside is a seated Bull Nandi, cut from a granite monolith and blackened with ritual oil.
The viman or spire has a repetition of ‘storeys’ with domes and gutters. Ganesh, Vishnu with consort, Bhu-devi (the Earth), Lakshmi, giant Dvarpals with four arms,Vishnu-anugrah (Vishnu worshipping Shiva). Shiva Bhikshatan (Shiva as mendicant after chopping off one of Brahma,s heads), Shiva Vir-bhadra (destroying the ritual of his father-in-law Daksha), Dvarpals, Shiva Dakshina Murti, Kalantak and Shiva Natraj. On the west-side there are niches with Harihar (Vishnu and Shiva), Ardh-narishvar (Shiva andParvati), Dvarpals and two Chandra-shekhar.
On the north-side there are images of Ardh-narishvar (Shiva and Parvati), Shiva Ganga-dhar (‘receiving the river Ganges in his hair), Dvarpals, Virbhadra (Shiva ruining the ritual of his father-in-law Daksha), Alingan-Chandrashekhar (Shiva ‘embracing’), Dvarpals, Sarasvati (consort of Brahma), Mahish-asur-mardini Durga, Bhairav (Shiva the terrifying). In the upper storeys most images are representations of Shiva Tripur-antak (destroying the demons of the three cities). In the corridor around the compound there are 1000 Lingams, of different sizes, and some (recent) wall-paintings. In some of these paintings we can see interesting combinations of a personified Shiva in the Lingam. The shrine of the temple is close to non-Hindus but inside there are interesting images of Shiva, in 108 different dancing poses. The Subrahmanya temple near the image of Nandi is of the 17th century. Thegroundplan is simple but the temple gives an artistic impression because of the beautiful sculptures.
You enter the compound from the north. On the east side of the temple large steps lead up to the imposing Dvarpals (door guardian). On the eastern wall of the external portal we see some nice images of the kind Shiva, showing benevolence (anugrah): Vishnu-anugrah Murti (Vishnu worshipping Shiva); Ravan-anugrah Murti (Shiva pardoning the demon Ravan who had disturbed the mountain Kailash on which Shiva lived); Devi-anugrah Murti (Shiva showing kindness to Devi who worships his Lingam); Kalyan-sundar Murti (marriage of Shiva and Parvati); Markandey-anugrah Murti; Chandesh-anugrah Murti or the story of Chandesh who cut off his father’s leg because he had disturbed his son’s worship of Shiva.
On the north side there is a big panel in which Shiva shows kindness to his main servant, Chandikeshvar. On the outside of the central shrine (south) there are fine sculptures of Chandesh-anugrah Murti (see above), Ganesh (sone of Shiva with elephant’s head), Ardh-narishvar (Shiva and Parvati), Hari-har (Shiva and Vishnu), Shiva Nat-raj, dancing with Kali. In this scene Vishnu is shown beating a drum, while Ganesh and Kartikey (sons of Shiva) arrive on their mounts; Devi is looking on, one arm resting on the Bull Nandi.
On the west side we see Siva Ganga-dhar (receiving the Earth on his hair), while Devi stands to one side, a little jealous, and the ascetic Bhringi does penance in order to bring about the descent of the Earth. Further, there is Shiva Lingodbhav (appearing in his own Lingam) and Vishnu worshipping Shiva with flowers. In the niches on the north side we see Shiva Bhikshatan Murti (going around begging to atone for his sin of having cut off one of Brahma’s five heads), Shiva kalantak (Shiva destroying Death), Mahish-asur-mardini Durga with eight arms (killing the buffalo-demon Mahish), Brahma with a beard and with his consorts Savitri and Sarasvati, Shiva Bhairav (terrifying) with eight arms, Shiva Madanantak (killing Madan or Eros).
As in most Chola temples we find here too, in the southern main niche, Shiva as Dakshina Murti or teacher of the South; in the main niche on the west side is Vishnu with consorts, on the north side Brahma. Inside, in a dark corner of the temple, we find a fine sculpture of the Nine Planets (nav-grah), testifying to the all-encompassing ambitions of King Rajendra ‘who brought the Ganges to the South.
The shrine to the north of the main temple is dedicated to Chandikeshvar, main servant of Shiva. On the southwestern side, there is a temple of Ganesh, represented with his trunk encircling a heap of sweets.
The friezes near the entrance, depicting musicians and dancing girls, create an atmosphere of relaxed elation. The pillars inside have Yalis as their bases. The bas-reliefs on these pillars give the stories of Shiva’s attack on Manmath (Eros), of the penance of Parvati, of the prayer of the gods for Shiva to have a son, the birth of Shiva’s son Kumar (Kartikey), the marriage of Shiva, and so on.
On both sides of the portal we can see galloping horses, suggesting that the structure should be that of a chariot. In front, below, there are beautiful panels depicting Shiva fighting the demons of the Three Cities (Tripurantak); Shiva kalantak (Shivadestroying Death); Shiva fighting Kam (Eros); Shiva as Vir-bhadra ruining the sacrifice of his father-in-law Daksha. Just above we see, in niches, the Vedic gods Agni (Fire), Indra (god of rain), Brahma, Vishnu andVayu (Wind): with great respect they are watching Shiva.
The Main Portal (Maha-mandap) has on the outside beautiful niches with all kinds of finely chiseled images. Noteworthy is the variation in architectural decoration: niche, small pillars, side-niche. Most images in the niches are of (volcanic) basalt, not of granite like the rest of the temple. In the ceilings there are sculptures of very attractive dancing scenes. The Dvarpals of the cella are terrifying, with four arms, tusks and lion-emblems. On the left side of the entrance stands a beautiful Kumar (or Kartikey), with six heads.
Indise, there is a unique image of Ardh-narishvar (Shiva and Parvati) with three faces and eight arms; a Nag-raj (King of the Snakes) with four arms; Agastya, the saint who instructed Shiva (in the temples of Prembanam in Java the saint Agastya is very prominent); a dancing Shiva Bhairav, looking very fierce; Shiva as Sharabh, killing (Vishnu) Narsinha who had gone amuck after destroying the demon Hiranyakashipu; a standing Ganesh; Shiva as Dakshina Murti, and as Lingodbhav (appearing in the pillar of fire, the top of which Brahma could not reach and the bottoms of which Vishnu could not attain); Brahma; Durga with eight arms; a seated Devi; Shiva Tripurantak (destroying the demons of the Three Cities) and Shia Gajantak (Shiva killing the elephant);
Shiva Bhairav with six arms and his dog; Shiva as Mahesh Murti, with three heads and four arms. All these beautiful sculptures are in basalt. It is impossible to describe in detail what can be seen on the outer walls of the shrine. It is a feast of the most interesting and decorative designs. The images of the gods are flanked by wise men, heavenly figures, etc.
A little to the north stands the Chandikeshvar temple, dedicated to Shiva’s servant (as at Gangaikondacholapuram).
To the northeast is the Natya-mandap (Dancing Hall); on the base, interestingly, we can see Vishnu beating a drum to accompany Shiva’s dance. In the cloister to the west of this hall stands a Chola masterpieces. Shiva Kankal Murti (Shiva as a skeleton), gently caressing a deer. The women around Shiva are full of admiration for him and offer him food. Here we can also see 108 saints, devotees of Shiva, with a short inscription.
The Cholas made good use of the architectural achievements of their predecessors. With the huge capital they had ‘gathered’ they attracted artisans and stone-cutters from other regions and with a creative genius they contributed much to the development of architecture. With the Pallavs the central shrine of the temple was small: the Cholas made the spire above the shrine a gigantic structure. With the Pallavs the gopuram (gate-house) was rather small. In Chola temple compounds the gopuram is sometimes even bigger than the central spire. The Dvarpals, important figures in the Pallav temples, have two arms and look gentle. In the Chola temples they have form arms and look fierce. Around 1239 the Cholas suffered a defeat in a battle against the Pandyas of Madurai, who took superiority in the region.
Thanjavur
The Brihadeshvar temple (of Shiva ‘the Great Lord’) was completed in 1010, with the fitting of an 80 ton monolith on top of the spire which is 60.96 meters high. In numerous inscriptions in the temple compound we can read which noble person gave what donation to help in the construction of the temple. Many of these treasures have since disappeared.If you find a quiet corner somewhere, sit down and dream about the days, in the 12th c., when worship in this temple attracted huge crowds (as in Madurai today). For most of them this was the tallest building on earth. There wasdancing, singing and music. Loads of flowers were distributed or sold. The musicians, drummers, dancing-girls and instructors were given donations by royal patrons. Stone cutters, sculptors and wood-carvers, painters and poets, cooks, security people and, last but not least, persons in charge of collecting the money: all were part of this temple. They joined for a temporary assignment or had a ‘tenure’ job. If you can go back to those days, the Thanjavur temple is not just an architectural monument: it is a happening, an inspiration gone but still testifying to the greatness of the dynastic power and of the devotion of the people. It is good not to remember that much of the rice production and of the military loot were required for this construction.
Granite, dragged to this place on bullockcarts is the basic material of the Brihadeshvar temple. Like a fortress, the compound is surrounded by a tall wall, and on one side flows the Kaveri River. Some of the fortifying structures were built by the French in 1777, with blocks taken from temples in the neighbourhood!
Going through the big gate (east), you arrive at a second, smaller gopuram (gate-house) where two impressive Dvarpals (door guardians) testify to the greatness of the Cholas. On the walls we can see beautiful friezes, depicting episodes in the life of Shiva: the marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Shiva protecting Markandey, Arujn acquiring the Pashupat bow. In a pavilion on the main square inside is a seated Bull Nandi, cut from a granite monolith and blackened with ritual oil.
The viman or spire has a repetition of ‘storeys’ with domes and gutters. Ganesh, Vishnu with consort, Bhu-devi (the Earth), Lakshmi, giant Dvarpals with four arms,Vishnu-anugrah (Vishnu worshipping Shiva). Shiva Bhikshatan (Shiva as mendicant after chopping off one of Brahma,s heads), Shiva Vir-bhadra (destroying the ritual of his father-in-law Daksha), Dvarpals, Shiva Dakshina Murti, Kalantak and Shiva Natraj. On the west-side there are niches with Harihar (Vishnu and Shiva), Ardh-narishvar (Shiva andParvati), Dvarpals and two Chandra-shekhar.
On the north-side there are images of Ardh-narishvar (Shiva and Parvati), Shiva Ganga-dhar (‘receiving the river Ganges in his hair), Dvarpals, Virbhadra (Shiva ruining the ritual of his father-in-law Daksha), Alingan-Chandrashekhar (Shiva ‘embracing’), Dvarpals, Sarasvati (consort of Brahma), Mahish-asur-mardini Durga, Bhairav (Shiva the terrifying). In the upper storeys most images are representations of Shiva Tripur-antak (destroying the demons of the three cities). In the corridor around the compound there are 1000 Lingams, of different sizes, and some (recent) wall-paintings. In some of these paintings we can see interesting combinations of a personified Shiva in the Lingam. The shrine of the temple is close to non-Hindus but inside there are interesting images of Shiva, in 108 different dancing poses. The Subrahmanya temple near the image of Nandi is of the 17th century. Thegroundplan is simple but the temple gives an artistic impression because of the beautiful sculptures.
Gangaikonda-Chola-Puram
The Brihadeshvar temple (of Shiva ‘the Great Lord’) was built by King Rajendra (1010-1044), son of King Raj-raj who built the Thanjavur temple. His capital has disappeared completely. Only a few bricks, at about 1.5 km away from the temple, mark the place where this powerful king lived.You enter the compound from the north. On the east side of the temple large steps lead up to the imposing Dvarpals (door guardian). On the eastern wall of the external portal we see some nice images of the kind Shiva, showing benevolence (anugrah): Vishnu-anugrah Murti (Vishnu worshipping Shiva); Ravan-anugrah Murti (Shiva pardoning the demon Ravan who had disturbed the mountain Kailash on which Shiva lived); Devi-anugrah Murti (Shiva showing kindness to Devi who worships his Lingam); Kalyan-sundar Murti (marriage of Shiva and Parvati); Markandey-anugrah Murti; Chandesh-anugrah Murti or the story of Chandesh who cut off his father’s leg because he had disturbed his son’s worship of Shiva.
On the north side there is a big panel in which Shiva shows kindness to his main servant, Chandikeshvar. On the outside of the central shrine (south) there are fine sculptures of Chandesh-anugrah Murti (see above), Ganesh (sone of Shiva with elephant’s head), Ardh-narishvar (Shiva and Parvati), Hari-har (Shiva and Vishnu), Shiva Nat-raj, dancing with Kali. In this scene Vishnu is shown beating a drum, while Ganesh and Kartikey (sons of Shiva) arrive on their mounts; Devi is looking on, one arm resting on the Bull Nandi.
On the west side we see Siva Ganga-dhar (receiving the Earth on his hair), while Devi stands to one side, a little jealous, and the ascetic Bhringi does penance in order to bring about the descent of the Earth. Further, there is Shiva Lingodbhav (appearing in his own Lingam) and Vishnu worshipping Shiva with flowers. In the niches on the north side we see Shiva Bhikshatan Murti (going around begging to atone for his sin of having cut off one of Brahma’s five heads), Shiva kalantak (Shiva destroying Death), Mahish-asur-mardini Durga with eight arms (killing the buffalo-demon Mahish), Brahma with a beard and with his consorts Savitri and Sarasvati, Shiva Bhairav (terrifying) with eight arms, Shiva Madanantak (killing Madan or Eros).
As in most Chola temples we find here too, in the southern main niche, Shiva as Dakshina Murti or teacher of the South; in the main niche on the west side is Vishnu with consorts, on the north side Brahma. Inside, in a dark corner of the temple, we find a fine sculpture of the Nine Planets (nav-grah), testifying to the all-encompassing ambitions of King Rajendra ‘who brought the Ganges to the South.
The shrine to the north of the main temple is dedicated to Chandikeshvar, main servant of Shiva. On the southwestern side, there is a temple of Ganesh, represented with his trunk encircling a heap of sweets.
Darasuram
The Airavateshvar temple, dedicated to Indra, ‘Lord of (the elephant) Airavat, is of a later date when compared to the two previous temples. It was built by kings Vir-rajendra (1063-1069) and Raj-raj II (1150-1173).The friezes near the entrance, depicting musicians and dancing girls, create an atmosphere of relaxed elation. The pillars inside have Yalis as their bases. The bas-reliefs on these pillars give the stories of Shiva’s attack on Manmath (Eros), of the penance of Parvati, of the prayer of the gods for Shiva to have a son, the birth of Shiva’s son Kumar (Kartikey), the marriage of Shiva, and so on.
On both sides of the portal we can see galloping horses, suggesting that the structure should be that of a chariot. In front, below, there are beautiful panels depicting Shiva fighting the demons of the Three Cities (Tripurantak); Shiva kalantak (Shivadestroying Death); Shiva fighting Kam (Eros); Shiva as Vir-bhadra ruining the sacrifice of his father-in-law Daksha. Just above we see, in niches, the Vedic gods Agni (Fire), Indra (god of rain), Brahma, Vishnu andVayu (Wind): with great respect they are watching Shiva.
The Main Portal (Maha-mandap) has on the outside beautiful niches with all kinds of finely chiseled images. Noteworthy is the variation in architectural decoration: niche, small pillars, side-niche. Most images in the niches are of (volcanic) basalt, not of granite like the rest of the temple. In the ceilings there are sculptures of very attractive dancing scenes. The Dvarpals of the cella are terrifying, with four arms, tusks and lion-emblems. On the left side of the entrance stands a beautiful Kumar (or Kartikey), with six heads.
Indise, there is a unique image of Ardh-narishvar (Shiva and Parvati) with three faces and eight arms; a Nag-raj (King of the Snakes) with four arms; Agastya, the saint who instructed Shiva (in the temples of Prembanam in Java the saint Agastya is very prominent); a dancing Shiva Bhairav, looking very fierce; Shiva as Sharabh, killing (Vishnu) Narsinha who had gone amuck after destroying the demon Hiranyakashipu; a standing Ganesh; Shiva as Dakshina Murti, and as Lingodbhav (appearing in the pillar of fire, the top of which Brahma could not reach and the bottoms of which Vishnu could not attain); Brahma; Durga with eight arms; a seated Devi; Shiva Tripurantak (destroying the demons of the Three Cities) and Shia Gajantak (Shiva killing the elephant);
Shiva Bhairav with six arms and his dog; Shiva as Mahesh Murti, with three heads and four arms. All these beautiful sculptures are in basalt. It is impossible to describe in detail what can be seen on the outer walls of the shrine. It is a feast of the most interesting and decorative designs. The images of the gods are flanked by wise men, heavenly figures, etc.
A little to the north stands the Chandikeshvar temple, dedicated to Shiva’s servant (as at Gangaikondacholapuram).
To the northeast is the Natya-mandap (Dancing Hall); on the base, interestingly, we can see Vishnu beating a drum to accompany Shiva’s dance. In the cloister to the west of this hall stands a Chola masterpieces. Shiva Kankal Murti (Shiva as a skeleton), gently caressing a deer. The women around Shiva are full of admiration for him and offer him food. Here we can also see 108 saints, devotees of Shiva, with a short inscription.