Structural Stone Temples – The Early Phase
While with the Chalukyas of Badami, the construction of stone temples started almost simultaneously, if not as a sequel to their cut-in-cave-temples, with the Pallavas of kanchi, it maybe said that the structural vogue started after their cut-out monoliths from the time of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (700-728). In the keen competition with their Chalukyan rivals, that had all along motivated the urge achievements in architecture and faced with the comparatively greater difficulty in the quarrying and sizing of such very hard native rocks as granite, gneiss and charnockite-as against the soft standstone exploited with ease and advantages by the chalyukyas-Rajasimha Pallava experimented, as it were, with the different kinds of stones from the rocks of Tondaimandalam. Furthermore, ‘rock architecture’ implied the creation of temples only in places where there were hills or rocks. Such temples could not be created elsewhere, for instance, in the Pallava capital of kanchi. His experiments with different kinds of stones could be seen from the blackish hard variety of leptinite used in the Shore temple, the hardreddish gneiss in the Mukundanayanar temple, and the somewhat softer grayish-white granite employed in the Olakkannesvara temple, all in Mahabalipuram, and the hard pinkish gneiss of the Talagirisvara temple at Panamalai. Finding that construction in these hard stones was difficult and time-consuming, and in order to ste[ up the tempo and keep pace with, if not outstrip, his rivals, Rajasimha ultimately resorted to the softstone tradition and hard to employ the coarse, friable, local standstone of a not very commendable quality for the temples in his capital city. Even in such standstone constructions the use of hardstone, a tradition inaugurated by his forbears, was not totally abandoned. It was used as slabs and as the bottom and top courses of the basement or adhishthana, namely, the upana and pattika components. The great kailasanatha temple in Kanchi and others in the same place are of this kind. However much the Pallvas lagged behing the Chalukyas in this respect, their monolithic or cut-out ratha interlude did confer definite advantages, for it gave them better ideas of form, proportion and design that helped them in making their structural edifices more elegant and beter composed and dimensioned than the Chalukyan structural creations.
The Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is a complex of three shrines with accessory mandapas, prakara enclosures and gopura entrances. Of the three, the larger vimana facing the sea on the east, called Kshatriyasimhesvara, and the smaller vimana at its rear facing the village on the west called Rajasimhesvara, are both dedicated to Siva and have wedged in between tehm a rectangular mandapa-shrine without a superstructure-called Narapatisimha Pallava Vishnu-gridha. This is built over a preiously existing recumbent Vishnu carved on a low rocky outcrop. These names inscribed on the structure are all titles of Rajasimha, the builder of the complex. The axial mandapa and gopuras are built in front of the smaller vimana, and the whole is enclosed by a common prakara wall. The larger eastern vimana has an additional prakara of its own, closely inveting it on the east, south and north, and leaving the west open. The smaller vimana is three-storeyed, all square on plan, but with octagonal griva and sikhara and stupi on top. While the aditala is devoid of the hara elements on top, it has, like the top tala, four seated bhutas placed at the corners blowing conches. The hara elements are found over the second tala on all the four sides, and again over the ardha-mandapa in front of the aditala. The bhuta forms take the place of Nandis or bulls to be invariably found on the top tala of the later Siva temples. The talas are proportionately tall, the top tala rising high and clear over the hara elements of the tala below, the stupi over the octagonal griva and sikhara being made of polished black basalt. The pillars on the walls have rearing lion bases, as is characteristic of the Rajasimha temples. The four-storeyed eastern vimana is also of square plan up to the griva which with the sikhara and basalt stupi above is octagonal. The hara of kutas and salas are restricted ti tge tops of the second and third talas, as also to the top of the ardha-mandapa in front of the aditala, which carries instead figures of squatting lions at the four corners. The top tala has four squatting bhutas blowing conches, symbolizing a Siva temple, as in the case of the smaller vimana. The very closely set prakara that we are special to this vimana is of a lesser height than the aditala, and carries karnakutas at the corners and salas over the lengths of the sides. The gap at the rear on the west is partially filled by the hara elements on top of the Vishnu mandapa at the same level. The central sala over the seaward entrance on the eastern length of this prakara is made larger than the rest in order to simulate a dvarasala or lesser gopura scheme. The proportionately tall storeys and the elimination of the hara elements over the lowest and topmost talas lend a grace and charm to this attenuated structure, while the close-set prakara of a lesser height surrounding the aditala, with hara elements over its coping, gives externally the appearance of an additional tala. It apparently enlarges its basal area in apt proportion to the total height. The usual Somaskanda relief panels are found on the rear walls of both the vimana sanctums in addition to a sixteen-sided, fluted, polished, basalt linga, planted without the usual pedestal on the centre of the floor of the garbha-gridha. Though the sculptures on the walls of this temple complex are much eroded by the moist and saline winds from the sea, the architectural proportions and make-up, and the natural setting on the sea make the edifice one of the finest monuments in India. Besides the usual rearing lion-based pilasters, the larger vimana shows on its own walls and thoseof its prakara, other types which have the elephant, ram, naga, nagadeva, and bhuta forms for their bases.
The Olakkannesvara structure on top of the light-house hill, devoid of its original superstructural talas and with the outer shell of its aditala and ardha-mandapa alone extant (owing to its earlier conversion and use as a light-house before the present one was constructed in 1900) retains the sculptures, niches and pilasters of the outer walls. Its most interesting feature is the occurrence of the Dakshinamurti icon in the central niche on the southern side, heralding this usual feature of the southern vimana which followed. An important feature that enables one to assign the Olakkannesvara temple to Rajasimha Pallava is the presence of rearing vyala-based pilasters cantoning the outer corners of the shrine and ardha-mandapa. Thr Talagirisvara templeon the Panamalai rock (South Arcot district) of the same pinkish-red hard granite has an interesting plan. It is essentially square on its base and talas, but its east-facing aditala has smaller oblong shrines with cells attached to the middle of its south, wst and northern sides over corresponding offset extensions of the adhishthana. The corresponding oblong attachment on the east, with the passage through it, forms the antarala entrance to the main sanctum. The two lateral shrines facing east as also the rear shrine facing west are like the main sanctum, dedicated to Siva. The main sanctum has a somaskanda relief panel inside a special niche high upon its rear wall and visible above the top of the fluted linga stele, planted without a pitha on the sanctum floor, unlike the other Rajasimha temples where the linga more or less hides the Somaskanda panel, set at the centre of the rear wall. The vimana is four-storeyed, and the sala superstructures of the two-storeyed oblong side shrines are dexterously made to merge into the hara of karnakuta and other elements of the aditala. The hara is found again on the upper storeys except the topmost. The griva and sikhara which are modern restorations in brick and mortar are, as per the original plan, octagonal. The corners of the walls of the aditala and of the attached shrines are cantoned by bold rearing vyala pilasters characteristic of Rajasimha temples. The top tala carries bhuta forms at the corners. Otherwise the walls lack sculpture as in the Mukundanayanar temple, evidently because of the hard material of construction. There are only the dvarapalas and the Brahma and Vishnu sculptures on the inner walls of the antarala that maintain the original trimurti concept, but with Brahma and Vishnu relegated to lesser positions. The northern outer shrine contains remnants of a pallava mural painting depicting a dancing Siva with Parvati.
The Mukundanayanar temple in Mahabalipuram, also built of reddish granite, is a more plainand severe structure, with a dvitala vimana, square below but with octagonal griva sikhara, and is hence Dravida. It consists of the vimana and mandapa in front. The upper parts of the sikhara and the stupi arelost. The walls are plain, the pilasters simple, crudely shaped and devoid of vyala bases. It contains a Somaskanda relief as the main deitv on the back wall of the sanctum.
The kailasanatha complex at kanchi is a joint venture of Rajasimha and his son Mahendra III. The main vimana, Rajasimhes vara (now called Kailasanatha) facing east is four storeyed, and is essentially a square structure up to the griva, which and the sikhara above are octagonal. The aditala is double-walled and its moulded base is prominently offset on all the four sides and four corners-for they carry over them smaller shrines with cella in them, abutting on and incorporated with theouter wall of the main aditala. This is an elaboration of the feature found in the Panamalai temple. While the adhishthana offsets at the four corners are square and carry smaller two-storeyed vimanas of square plan with four-sided kuta sikharas, those on the four sides are oblong and carry smaller, dvitala vimanas of the oblong plan, with sala sikharason the south, west and north. The corresponding one on the east is also oblong with the sala superstructure having a passage through in place of a cella and functioning as the antarala passage to the main sanctum. The kuta and sala sikharas of the abutting shrines are cleverly incorporated into the hara scheme over the prastara of the outer wall of the aditala as in Panamalai. The cells of these abutting vimanas in their ground storeys enshrine forms of Siva. The abutting vimanas on the south-east, south, north and north-east face east like the main sanctum, while those on the south-west, west and north-west face west. The main sanctum has a large fluted, sixteen-faceted, polished almost the entire floor of the sanctum. On the rear wall, in a special niche, is carved the usual Somaskanda panel, with Siva and Uma seated with little Skanda on Uma’s lap and Brahma and Vishu standing behind on either side. The inner wall of the garbha-gridha is plain and square, while the outer wall, visible in parts between the abutting vimanas, is profusely sculptured with reliefs of gods and goddesse, as also are the walls of the abutting structures. Inbetween the two walls internally isa narrow, covered, circumambulatory passage. The superstructural talas are built over a bridge of slabs spanning the tops of the two massive walls of the aditala. The double-walling and the additional buttressing by smaller vimanas on the sides and corners are evidently expedients to suppor the mass of the superstructure of this vimana, which is the largest one of the period, and at the same time to provide a pleasing base to the height ratio and a balanced proportion to the edifice. While the panjaras are absent among the hara elements over the aditala prastara which, in addition to the corner kuta and the lateral sala sikharas of the abutting shrines, carries salas over the intervening partsof the aditala outer wall; the hara of the second tala has the full complement of kutas, salas, and panjaras. The third storey has again a hara of kutas and salas above, and the fourth carries only four Nandis on the four corners as its top. The pilasters cantoning the aditala wall and those of the abutting shrines have rearing vyala bases, peculiar to the Rajasimha temples. There is a detached multi-pillared oblong mandapa in front, longer on its north-south axis and with its cantoning pilasters vyala-based while the rest are of the plainer type with basal and apical square sections and intervening octagonal belts. The whole is surrounded by a prakara with a gap on the middle of its east side and enclosing an open court all around. The large eastern opening is occupied by a fair-sized oblong dvitala sala-type vimana, with its ardha-mandapa, the vimana itself appearing likea gopura when viewed from a distance. Both its talas are devoid of the hara. This vimana, called Mahendravarmesvara afte Rajasimha’s son, contains in its sanctum the usual fluted linga and Somaskanda panels, besides Brahma and Vishnu sculptures on the inner wall of the ardha-mandapa, as alo other sculptures on its outer wall and in the devakoshthas. The cantoning pilasters are rearing vyala based. The prakara has another entrance on the west at the middle, which is a real gopura entrance with a sala superstructure; it is smalle in magnitude. All round the inner face of the prakara is built an array of fifty-eight small dvitala vimanas, all except two being square and of the kuta type. They are all dedicated to Siva except the two which are oblong and come opposite the northand south of the main Rajasimhesvara sanctum and contain groups of Vishnu and Brahma sculptures facing south and north, respectively. But among the kuta vimanas of the malika of parivara shrines, those along the east face west, those along the west face east, while those on the north and south both face east. The cells of many of these contain traces of old paintings on plain walls or painted stucco over reliefs. The external walls of these parivara shrines of the malika contain a variety of sculptures, both Saivite and Vishnuavite, of varied iconography, thus making this temple complex a veritable museum of inconography and plastic are. The sculptures include the dikpalas and Ganesa, who makes his first appearance in Pallava temples, as also the Saptamartrika group, Chandesa and other parivara deities. The Mahendravarmesvara has smalle enclosure with a small gopura or dvarasala in front and two lateral entrances in addition near the two front corners. Inside there are two lateral oblong shrines in the centre on the north and south. In front of the whole complex stand a row of eight small dvitala square kuta vimanas with octagonal griva and sikhara, all of them memorial shrines, and, like the Mahendravarmesvara and the parivara shrines of the inner malika, devoid of the hara elements over their talas. All of them contain Somaskanda panels on their hind walls and varied sculpture on their external walls.
The remnants of fresco paintings found inside the various cloister shrines around the Rajasimhesvara of the Kailasanatha complex in Kanchipuram cannot, all of them, be coeval with the date of the maind shrine and Pallava. While some are undoubtedly Pallava, painted over the plaster ground laid over the coarse sandstone surface, which expedient was found necessary (as at Ajanta) to smoothen and protect the stone surface even at the outset, there are undeniable evidences of the renewal of the plaster and the paintings over them in subsequent periods. For example, in one of the cellas on the north-east corner of the malika, the extant plaster was found by the present writer to overlie an inscription on the stone below of Rajasimha himself. This alone would denote that the plastering was at best an afterthought in the times of the founder himself or immediately thereafter. For, an inscription would not be incised on a surface if it was tobe covered over by plaster. Likewise the present writer again found inanother cell, on the southern row, the painted plaste revealing beyond its broken edges, parts of a later Chola inscription of Kulottunga I (Accn. AD 1070) indicating that the stone face was bare at that time and that the plaster was laid after that time. Thus the painting over it could only be after the above date. From other evidences it is known that the temple, which was flourishing in Pallava and early Chola times, fell into disuse in the times of the later Cholas (after Kulottunga I) till the times of the rise of the Vijayanagar dynasty. Prince Kampana is known from inscriptions tohave repaired the damages wrought by the Muslim incursions and restored worship in the temple. This accounts for fragmentary paintings of the Vijayanagar period too. The temple saw bad times again subsequently till it became a protected monument and came to be attended to. Thus the Panamalai temple painted fragment, mentioned earlier, would alone be the earlier, would alone be the ealiest Pallava painting extant as found so far.
The Vaikunthapermal temple in Kanchi built by Nandivarman Pallavamalla (AD 731-796) and dedicated to Vishnu is another Pallava structure of the larger variety facing west and built in sandstone with an admixture of granite in the top and bottom courses of its adhishthana. It has a square four-storeyed main vimana with all the talas except the topmost, containing the superposed garbha-gridha, to enshrine the three forms of Vishnu, standing (sthanaka), sitting (asana), and reclining (sayana). It is thus a forerunner of many such Vishnu temples that came later even till recent times, e;g; the Sundaravaradaperuma temple at Uttiramerur, the Chitrakuta at Madurai,and the Vishnu temple at mannarkovil, to mention only a few. The triple storey has been achieved by a system of three concentric walls forming three concentric quares, one inside the other with ambulatory passages in between in the sandhara mode. They are set on top of a bodly moulded adhishthana, the innermost wall raising, to the height of the three storeys, enclosing the three tiers of cells, the intermediate wall rising to the terrace level of the first storey. The aditala has thus its sanctum surrounded by two covered circumambulatory passages, the outer one functioning as such while the inner one provides access to the second tala. There is a flight of steps on the north and south, for ascent and descent, providing access to and exit from the second tala, terminating in an opening on the centre of the west outer wall. The open outer ambulatory of the scond tala is surrounded by the parapet on top of the outermost wall formed by a hara of kutas, salas and panjaras; the inner covered ambulatory lies at the heads of the two flights of steps from below. This hara is extended over the top of the pillared adha-mandapa in front of the aditala. The intermediate wall extending up to the top of the second tala and enclosing the closed ambulatory carries on top a similar hara forming the parapet edging for the open circumambulatory passage round the third-tier cella. The innermost wall reaching to the top of the third-tier cella has, likewise, a hara of kutasand salas. The kutas, salas and panjaras of each tier crown the correspondingly relieved bays and recesses of the walls. The fourth tala, which is a smaller square, is close on all sides and carries the octagonal griva and sikhara with a metal stupi ontop, and four lions originally (now replaced by garuda figures in stucco) at its four corners. The central bays of the aditala outer wall have small door-openings, while the lateral ones have devakoshthas with figure sculpture, the intermediate recesses having perforated windows. The bays and recesses of the upper tala outer walls have similar sculpture, all Vaishnavite. The lowermost storey and the ardha-mandapa in front are surrounded by an open narrow circuit at the level of the bases of the adhishthana. The whole is again surrounded by a pillared cloister running all round ona raised platform with vyala-based pillars on the edge facing the central edifice and a wall on the outer edge that carries on its top a sting of kutas and salas, at a level slightly lower than that of the aditala. This arrangement when viewed from outside would simulate a panchatala appearance, as in the case of the Shore temple described earlier. In addition to the numerous divine sculptures on the vimana and ardha-mandapa and contemporary inscriptions, the most interesting part of this temple would be a series of panelled sculptures narrating the history of the Pallavas from their legendary ancestors down to the time of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla, the builder of the temple-a unique feature rarely met with elsewhere. The other temples of this period to be found in Kanchi, though smaller in proportions, are interesting for their architecture and iconography. They are the Muktesvara, Mantangesvara, Airavatesvara, Valisvara, Iravantanesvara and Piravatanesvara temples, built mainly of sandstone with granite slabs forming the base and top of the adhishthana, and the upa-pitha platform below it in cases where it is added to raise the stature of the edifice. All of them are composite varieties of the square vimana with vaying numbers of talas, the upper storeys non-functional and closely investedby the hara over the prastara of the storey below, and with different plans in the griva sikhara part. The Iravatanesvara and Tripurantakesvara are dvitala, square through out, including the griva and sikhara, and hence are Nagara. The Matangesvara and Muktesvara temples which are tritala have likewise square talas, but carry circular griva and sikhara conforming to the Vesara. The Piravatanesvara and Valisvara are two- and three-storeyed respectively, their talas square, but the griva and sikhara octagonal, marking them Dravida. The superstructure of the Airavatesvara is lost. The Kailasanatha at Tiruppattur (Tiruchirapalli district) is a larger vimana in sandstone and is much like the Kailasanatha of Kanchi. It is of the late eighth century and is an example of the provincial variety of the Pallava vimana.
But soon after the middle of the long reign of Nandivarman II Pallava, in the later part of the eighth century, temples came to be built entirely of granite blocks, cut, moulded, carved and sculptured, as seen in some of the smaller temples and in the granite adhishthanas of the large brick temples of Vaikunthaperumaland Sundaravaradaperumal at Uttiramerur (Chingelput district) of the time of his successor, Dantivarman. In the former, the niches were meant to contain stucco figures and in the latte, slab reliefs. The extant three-storeyed brick structure of Sundaravaradaperumal over its stone adhishthana is unique again in having all the three storeys functional with the cellas dedicated to the standing, seated and reclining forms of Vishnu, while the abutting smaller shrines on the three sides of its two lower talas south, west and north, contain the six other principal forms of Vishnu-Satya, Achyuta, Anirudha, Naranarayana, Narasimha, and Varsha-thus incorporating the nine forms or navamurtis in accodance with the Vaikhanasa Agama. These two temples and the large and fine renovated brick temple at Tiruvadigai (South Arcot district) on a stone adhishthana corroborate the fact that brick and timber continued to remain in use in spite of the advent of stone, and skills in their use in large constructions were fostered and maintained. The Virattanesvara temple at Tiruttani (Chingleput district) affords a very good example of a single-storeyed vimana square inits adhishthana and aditala that carries an apsidal griva sikhara superstructure. It was built of hard brick stone in the ninth century in the time of Pallava Aparajitavarman, one of the last rulers of the dynasty. It contains some good bas-reliefs in its wall niches which exemplify the definite polarization of the deities in the vimana and ardha-mandapa devaoshthas, namely, Ganesa and Durga respectively, in the southern and northern outer wall niches of the ardha-mandapa and Dakshinamurti, Vishnu and Brahma respectively, in the south, west and nort outer wall niches of the aditala wall. The introduction of a projected gargoyle-like water-outlet, the pranala, from the northern side of the garbha-gridha floor to drainoff the abhisheka water, till now not noticed in earlier temples, is another noteworthy feature. The pranala becomes an invariable component of all the temples built later.
The credit of constructing fine vimanas of hardstone, though small, and perfecting the same would, however, go to the contemporary Pandyas of the south who, following their rock-cut temples and the single carved-out monolithic vimana-the Vettuvankovil at Kalugumalai (AD 800), built a series of a small karralis, or all-stone temples, in the southern districts. The contemporary Western Gangas of the Talkad in the south Mysore area, and the Muttaraiyar, the Irukkuvel and other chiefs on either bank of the Kaveri, is the dividing border line between the Pallava and Pandya empire, followed by the ealy Cholas (who till then in hibernation had risen at the close of the ninth century to imperial power with their capital at Thanjavur, and soon spread over the Pallava and Pandya territories) have likewise left a number of fine temples in granite dating before AD 1000.
The series of small and elegant all-stone temples at kaliyapatti, Tiruppur, Visalur and Panangudi (Pudukkottai district) have square ekataka vimanas with simple moulded adhishthanas, less than 2 metre square at the base, carrying on top over the cella a sqare griva and sikhara. In addition to the vimana koshtha devatas in the prescribed order as mentioned above, in the context of the Tiruttani Virattanesvara, they have eight smaller sub-shrines, the ashta parivara, dedicated to the ancillary deities located on the corners and sides and inside the prakara wall that surrounds the nuclear vimana and its axial adjuncts. While all therest of the eight sub-shrines are square on plan like the main vimana, the one on the middle of the south side, dedicated to the Saptamatrikas, is rendered oblong with an appropriate sala sikhara as exemplified in the typical temple complex of the Sundaresvara at Tirukkattalai (Pudukkottai district). Such oblong or elliptical shrines of the linear pattern are prescribed for and found employed in cases where the deity is reclining, or where more than one deity (as the Saptamatrikas) is installed in a row, or a deity is with consorts (like Sri and Bhu devis for Vishnu), and attendants are enshrined in the sanctum. The oblong form with sala sikhara became the invariable rule, according to prescription and practice, for all the devi shrines deviate in form, as for example, the apsidal or gaja-prishta (elephant back) sub-shrine for Gajanana or Ganesa found in the Sundaresvara temple at Nangavaram (Tiruchirapalli district). The cult of Chandesa as the mulabhritya, or chief seneschal of a Siva temple, which had its emergence even in the time of Rajasimha Pallava as seen in his Kailasanatha at Kanchi, had now become crystallized and one of the ashta parivara sub-shrines on the north was assigned to him till about AD 1000. Subsequently in the temples of the imperial Chola period he, like Nandi of earlier times and the other equal associate of Siva, Chandesa came to have a more honoured place by coming into closer proximity with the main vimana just to the north of the pranala which had by now emerged on the northern side of the main vimana. These form the peculiar features of the southern temples, particularly of th temples of Tamil Nadu.
The Balasubrahmanya temple at kannanur and the Siva temple at Viralur (both in Pudukkottai district) are examples of the kind where the griva and sikhara are circular in section, mounted over the square body of theekatala vimana. The former carries on the four corners of its aditala four elephant figures as symbols for Subrahmanya kartikeya, instead of the later and usual peacock forms.
The dvitala Talinatha temple at Tiruppattur (Ramanathapuram district) and the similar Siva temple inTiruvalisvaram (Tirunelveli district) are slightly larger examples. The former has four karnakuta miniature shrines at the corners of the topmost tala in place of the Nandis. The latter is noted for its fine sculptures and cameos in relief on its walls and superstructure, amongst which is to be found the well-known ananda-tandava of Siva Nataraja, perhaps the earliest depiction of this characteristically crystallized and sublimated concept of Tamil Nadu and its unique contribution to Indian and world art. The celebrated icon of Nataraja in the characteristic ananda-tandava pose, depicting, esoterically, the pancha kritya of Siva of Tamilian Saiva Siddhanta, as ably described and interpreted by Coomaraswamy, makes its advent late in the ninth century. The Saiva saint, Manikkavachakar is the first among the Nayanmars to refer to this from and aspect of Siva’s dance and the small Tiruvalisvaram panel (c.AD 890) is perhaps the first to capture the imagery in stone. The concept was perhaps first revealed in copper or bronze, in the casting of which the Tamilian artisan had achieved skill and excellence, primarily to serve as a processional deity that came to be translated into stone subsequently. Such early stone representations are to be met with again, in miniature mostly, as the crest figure in a niche torana arch in the early Chola temple in Punjai (Thanjavur district) of the time of Parantaka I (Accn. AD 907), and on a pillar in the temple in Turaijur (Tiruchirapalli district) of about AD 940. The other early miniatures are found in theKoranganatha temple, Srinivasanallur in the same district, and also ina niche torana in the Tirumiyachur temple (Thanjavur district). It occurs as a niche sculpture in stone, perhaps for the first time, in the devakoshtha of the south wall of the ardha-mandapa in the temple at Konerirajapuram (Thanjavur district) and becomes a usual featuire in that position in the other early Chola temples.
The Vijayalaya Cholisvaram in Narttamalai (Pudukkottai district), though so called after the founder of the Chola line of Thanjavur, is an interesting and fine Muttaraiyar example. The sandhara aditala of this tritala structure is square on plan externally with an almost equal-sized close mandapa in front, while it’s inner wall enclosing the sanctum is circular, leaving an intervening passage all round. The second tala rising over the inner circular wall is square, while the third, as also the griva and sikhara above, is circular in section. The aditala hara, extended over the top of the front mandapa, also shows a series of dance sculptures. But for these and the dvarapalas at the mandapa entrance, the sculptures on the four faces at the top and the cylindrical linga with circular pitha in the sanctum, there ae not many sculptures. The west-facing complex is surrounded by the ashta parivara and a prakara with a small gopura entrance on the east located near the north-east corner at the top of a slopy ascent on the rock over which the temple is built.
The Muvarkovil at Kodumbalur (Tiruchirapalli district) is of Irukkuvel origin and has three equal-sized dvitala vimanas square from base to sikhara with their ardha-mandapa standing in a north-south row facing west, with a common large and oblong maha-mandapa infront. Two of these are complete and the third is represented by its extant basement only. The whole was surrounded by sixteen sub-shrines and a prakara, with the small entrance gopuram on the west. This temple is another important landmark in the line of the great south Indian temples. It is built of fine-grained and neatly-dressed granite, and is noted for its exquisite sculptures-particularly Vinadhara, Dakshinamurti, Kalari Siva, and some feminine forms.
Likewise, the early Chola temples of Koranganatha at Srinivasanallur (Tiruchirapalli district), Nagesvaram in Kumbhakonam, Naltunai Isvara at Punjai and Brahmapurisvara in Pullamangai are other early all-stone temples famous for their sculpture of quality and grace including what appear to be portrait sculptures of men and women. Hundreds of such stone temples were being built in Tamil Nadu in the centuries before and after AD 1000, in replacement of earlir brick-and-timber structures, and in places hallowed by the memory of the Saiva and Vaishnava saints-the Nayanmars and the Alvars.
Similar activity, though on a lesser scale, is to be found in the southern Mysore country, where the Western Gangas of Talkad have left a few contemporary hardstone temples. The earliest would be the twin ekatala vimanas of a small size forming an adjunct to the later Jain temple on the Chandragiri hill in Sarvana Belagola (Hassan district). But the more impressive Jain temple on the same hill would be the Chamundaraya basti (c. 982-985), with a three-storeyed east-facing vimana and closed mandapa and open porch in front. Its two square lower talas of the superposed sanctum type, with a double-walled square sandhara aditala leaving a passage in between the walls are functional and have tirthankara forms enshrined in their sanctums. The third tala, also square, is non-functional, and the griva and sikhara are octagonal. The hara of the aditala over the top of the outer wall, consisting of kuta, sala and panjara elements, is continued over the top edges of the front mandapas. The second storey has thus an open ambulatory round it. The hara contains a series of fine sculptures. But the most interesting monument inSravana Belagola is the hypaethral temple of the Gommatesvara colossus, 17.5 metres high, carved in the roundout of a standing tor on top of the Indragiri hill. This was the work of Chavundaraya, the minister of Ganga Rachamalla (974-984). Being a free-standing image of find proportions and polished granite, it is even more interesting than the colossus of Ramses II at Abu Simbel in Egypt. The base of the colossus is surrounded by a malika of granite, built by Gangaraya, the minister of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana (1110-1152), and the mandapa abutting the lower part of the colossus from behind was built by another minister, Baladeva, in the twelfth century.
The Ganesa temple at Kambadahalli near Sravana Belagola, also Jain, is interesting on account of the fact that is three principal vimanas of moderate dimensions and built wholly of granite open into the three-sides of a common mandapa, the fourth side of which on the north affords the common outerentrance-a grouping called trikuta. The three square-based vimanas have square, octagonal and circular griva sikharas respectively, denoting the Nagara-Dravida-Vesara types as described in the Slipa texts. To this complex have been added two more lateral vimanas in front of the common mandapa of the trikuta nucleus. The whole is surrounded by a prakara with a small gopura entrance on the north. This complex called Panchakuta basti (Jain temple) in Kambadahalli (Hassan district), besides being a unique combination of units illustrating the ternary classification of the southern vimanas asNagara, Dravida and Versa,is interesting in its other aspects too. Particularly may be mentioned the variety of niche toranas framing the devakoshthas, that depict the different forms of toranas described in the texts and inscriptions, such as the patra torana, chitra torana, makara torana, vidyadhara torana, etc. This temple complex in thus exemplifying the various features of the vimana form as enumerated and codified in the Slipa and Agama texts of the period can be said to be a perfect text-book illustration or specimen to be studied comparison with the texts.
The granite temples of Nandi (Kolar district), the capital of the Banas, are of Ganga-Nolamba extraction. The small and earlier Yoganandisvara on top of the hill is not architecturally impressive, while the larger twin temples of Bhoganandisvara and Arunachalesvara, both of the square type, at the foot of hill area. This nuclear twin is enlarged with the addition of later axial mandapas and peripheral structures into a complex with prakara and gopura on the east. The Bhoganandisvara, earlier of the two is evidently a renovation of a pre-existing structure, and is noted for the fineness of its structure and beauty of its sculptures. The Arunachalesvara would appear to be almost a later copy of the Bhoganandisvara. The ruined softstone-built temples at Hemavati of (Anantapur district), noted for their fine sculptures, are examples of pure Nolamba architecture and art.
The Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is a complex of three shrines with accessory mandapas, prakara enclosures and gopura entrances. Of the three, the larger vimana facing the sea on the east, called Kshatriyasimhesvara, and the smaller vimana at its rear facing the village on the west called Rajasimhesvara, are both dedicated to Siva and have wedged in between tehm a rectangular mandapa-shrine without a superstructure-called Narapatisimha Pallava Vishnu-gridha. This is built over a preiously existing recumbent Vishnu carved on a low rocky outcrop. These names inscribed on the structure are all titles of Rajasimha, the builder of the complex. The axial mandapa and gopuras are built in front of the smaller vimana, and the whole is enclosed by a common prakara wall. The larger eastern vimana has an additional prakara of its own, closely inveting it on the east, south and north, and leaving the west open. The smaller vimana is three-storeyed, all square on plan, but with octagonal griva and sikhara and stupi on top. While the aditala is devoid of the hara elements on top, it has, like the top tala, four seated bhutas placed at the corners blowing conches. The hara elements are found over the second tala on all the four sides, and again over the ardha-mandapa in front of the aditala. The bhuta forms take the place of Nandis or bulls to be invariably found on the top tala of the later Siva temples. The talas are proportionately tall, the top tala rising high and clear over the hara elements of the tala below, the stupi over the octagonal griva and sikhara being made of polished black basalt. The pillars on the walls have rearing lion bases, as is characteristic of the Rajasimha temples. The four-storeyed eastern vimana is also of square plan up to the griva which with the sikhara and basalt stupi above is octagonal. The hara of kutas and salas are restricted ti tge tops of the second and third talas, as also to the top of the ardha-mandapa in front of the aditala, which carries instead figures of squatting lions at the four corners. The top tala has four squatting bhutas blowing conches, symbolizing a Siva temple, as in the case of the smaller vimana. The very closely set prakara that we are special to this vimana is of a lesser height than the aditala, and carries karnakutas at the corners and salas over the lengths of the sides. The gap at the rear on the west is partially filled by the hara elements on top of the Vishnu mandapa at the same level. The central sala over the seaward entrance on the eastern length of this prakara is made larger than the rest in order to simulate a dvarasala or lesser gopura scheme. The proportionately tall storeys and the elimination of the hara elements over the lowest and topmost talas lend a grace and charm to this attenuated structure, while the close-set prakara of a lesser height surrounding the aditala, with hara elements over its coping, gives externally the appearance of an additional tala. It apparently enlarges its basal area in apt proportion to the total height. The usual Somaskanda relief panels are found on the rear walls of both the vimana sanctums in addition to a sixteen-sided, fluted, polished, basalt linga, planted without the usual pedestal on the centre of the floor of the garbha-gridha. Though the sculptures on the walls of this temple complex are much eroded by the moist and saline winds from the sea, the architectural proportions and make-up, and the natural setting on the sea make the edifice one of the finest monuments in India. Besides the usual rearing lion-based pilasters, the larger vimana shows on its own walls and thoseof its prakara, other types which have the elephant, ram, naga, nagadeva, and bhuta forms for their bases.
The Olakkannesvara structure on top of the light-house hill, devoid of its original superstructural talas and with the outer shell of its aditala and ardha-mandapa alone extant (owing to its earlier conversion and use as a light-house before the present one was constructed in 1900) retains the sculptures, niches and pilasters of the outer walls. Its most interesting feature is the occurrence of the Dakshinamurti icon in the central niche on the southern side, heralding this usual feature of the southern vimana which followed. An important feature that enables one to assign the Olakkannesvara temple to Rajasimha Pallava is the presence of rearing vyala-based pilasters cantoning the outer corners of the shrine and ardha-mandapa. Thr Talagirisvara templeon the Panamalai rock (South Arcot district) of the same pinkish-red hard granite has an interesting plan. It is essentially square on its base and talas, but its east-facing aditala has smaller oblong shrines with cells attached to the middle of its south, wst and northern sides over corresponding offset extensions of the adhishthana. The corresponding oblong attachment on the east, with the passage through it, forms the antarala entrance to the main sanctum. The two lateral shrines facing east as also the rear shrine facing west are like the main sanctum, dedicated to Siva. The main sanctum has a somaskanda relief panel inside a special niche high upon its rear wall and visible above the top of the fluted linga stele, planted without a pitha on the sanctum floor, unlike the other Rajasimha temples where the linga more or less hides the Somaskanda panel, set at the centre of the rear wall. The vimana is four-storeyed, and the sala superstructures of the two-storeyed oblong side shrines are dexterously made to merge into the hara of karnakuta and other elements of the aditala. The hara is found again on the upper storeys except the topmost. The griva and sikhara which are modern restorations in brick and mortar are, as per the original plan, octagonal. The corners of the walls of the aditala and of the attached shrines are cantoned by bold rearing vyala pilasters characteristic of Rajasimha temples. The top tala carries bhuta forms at the corners. Otherwise the walls lack sculpture as in the Mukundanayanar temple, evidently because of the hard material of construction. There are only the dvarapalas and the Brahma and Vishnu sculptures on the inner walls of the antarala that maintain the original trimurti concept, but with Brahma and Vishnu relegated to lesser positions. The northern outer shrine contains remnants of a pallava mural painting depicting a dancing Siva with Parvati.
The Mukundanayanar temple in Mahabalipuram, also built of reddish granite, is a more plainand severe structure, with a dvitala vimana, square below but with octagonal griva sikhara, and is hence Dravida. It consists of the vimana and mandapa in front. The upper parts of the sikhara and the stupi arelost. The walls are plain, the pilasters simple, crudely shaped and devoid of vyala bases. It contains a Somaskanda relief as the main deitv on the back wall of the sanctum.
The kailasanatha complex at kanchi is a joint venture of Rajasimha and his son Mahendra III. The main vimana, Rajasimhes vara (now called Kailasanatha) facing east is four storeyed, and is essentially a square structure up to the griva, which and the sikhara above are octagonal. The aditala is double-walled and its moulded base is prominently offset on all the four sides and four corners-for they carry over them smaller shrines with cella in them, abutting on and incorporated with theouter wall of the main aditala. This is an elaboration of the feature found in the Panamalai temple. While the adhishthana offsets at the four corners are square and carry smaller two-storeyed vimanas of square plan with four-sided kuta sikharas, those on the four sides are oblong and carry smaller, dvitala vimanas of the oblong plan, with sala sikharason the south, west and north. The corresponding one on the east is also oblong with the sala superstructure having a passage through in place of a cella and functioning as the antarala passage to the main sanctum. The kuta and sala sikharas of the abutting shrines are cleverly incorporated into the hara scheme over the prastara of the outer wall of the aditala as in Panamalai. The cells of these abutting vimanas in their ground storeys enshrine forms of Siva. The abutting vimanas on the south-east, south, north and north-east face east like the main sanctum, while those on the south-west, west and north-west face west. The main sanctum has a large fluted, sixteen-faceted, polished almost the entire floor of the sanctum. On the rear wall, in a special niche, is carved the usual Somaskanda panel, with Siva and Uma seated with little Skanda on Uma’s lap and Brahma and Vishu standing behind on either side. The inner wall of the garbha-gridha is plain and square, while the outer wall, visible in parts between the abutting vimanas, is profusely sculptured with reliefs of gods and goddesse, as also are the walls of the abutting structures. Inbetween the two walls internally isa narrow, covered, circumambulatory passage. The superstructural talas are built over a bridge of slabs spanning the tops of the two massive walls of the aditala. The double-walling and the additional buttressing by smaller vimanas on the sides and corners are evidently expedients to suppor the mass of the superstructure of this vimana, which is the largest one of the period, and at the same time to provide a pleasing base to the height ratio and a balanced proportion to the edifice. While the panjaras are absent among the hara elements over the aditala prastara which, in addition to the corner kuta and the lateral sala sikharas of the abutting shrines, carries salas over the intervening partsof the aditala outer wall; the hara of the second tala has the full complement of kutas, salas, and panjaras. The third storey has again a hara of kutas and salas above, and the fourth carries only four Nandis on the four corners as its top. The pilasters cantoning the aditala wall and those of the abutting shrines have rearing vyala bases, peculiar to the Rajasimha temples. There is a detached multi-pillared oblong mandapa in front, longer on its north-south axis and with its cantoning pilasters vyala-based while the rest are of the plainer type with basal and apical square sections and intervening octagonal belts. The whole is surrounded by a prakara with a gap on the middle of its east side and enclosing an open court all around. The large eastern opening is occupied by a fair-sized oblong dvitala sala-type vimana, with its ardha-mandapa, the vimana itself appearing likea gopura when viewed from a distance. Both its talas are devoid of the hara. This vimana, called Mahendravarmesvara afte Rajasimha’s son, contains in its sanctum the usual fluted linga and Somaskanda panels, besides Brahma and Vishnu sculptures on the inner wall of the ardha-mandapa, as alo other sculptures on its outer wall and in the devakoshthas. The cantoning pilasters are rearing vyala based. The prakara has another entrance on the west at the middle, which is a real gopura entrance with a sala superstructure; it is smalle in magnitude. All round the inner face of the prakara is built an array of fifty-eight small dvitala vimanas, all except two being square and of the kuta type. They are all dedicated to Siva except the two which are oblong and come opposite the northand south of the main Rajasimhesvara sanctum and contain groups of Vishnu and Brahma sculptures facing south and north, respectively. But among the kuta vimanas of the malika of parivara shrines, those along the east face west, those along the west face east, while those on the north and south both face east. The cells of many of these contain traces of old paintings on plain walls or painted stucco over reliefs. The external walls of these parivara shrines of the malika contain a variety of sculptures, both Saivite and Vishnuavite, of varied iconography, thus making this temple complex a veritable museum of inconography and plastic are. The sculptures include the dikpalas and Ganesa, who makes his first appearance in Pallava temples, as also the Saptamartrika group, Chandesa and other parivara deities. The Mahendravarmesvara has smalle enclosure with a small gopura or dvarasala in front and two lateral entrances in addition near the two front corners. Inside there are two lateral oblong shrines in the centre on the north and south. In front of the whole complex stand a row of eight small dvitala square kuta vimanas with octagonal griva and sikhara, all of them memorial shrines, and, like the Mahendravarmesvara and the parivara shrines of the inner malika, devoid of the hara elements over their talas. All of them contain Somaskanda panels on their hind walls and varied sculpture on their external walls.
The remnants of fresco paintings found inside the various cloister shrines around the Rajasimhesvara of the Kailasanatha complex in Kanchipuram cannot, all of them, be coeval with the date of the maind shrine and Pallava. While some are undoubtedly Pallava, painted over the plaster ground laid over the coarse sandstone surface, which expedient was found necessary (as at Ajanta) to smoothen and protect the stone surface even at the outset, there are undeniable evidences of the renewal of the plaster and the paintings over them in subsequent periods. For example, in one of the cellas on the north-east corner of the malika, the extant plaster was found by the present writer to overlie an inscription on the stone below of Rajasimha himself. This alone would denote that the plastering was at best an afterthought in the times of the founder himself or immediately thereafter. For, an inscription would not be incised on a surface if it was tobe covered over by plaster. Likewise the present writer again found inanother cell, on the southern row, the painted plaste revealing beyond its broken edges, parts of a later Chola inscription of Kulottunga I (Accn. AD 1070) indicating that the stone face was bare at that time and that the plaster was laid after that time. Thus the painting over it could only be after the above date. From other evidences it is known that the temple, which was flourishing in Pallava and early Chola times, fell into disuse in the times of the later Cholas (after Kulottunga I) till the times of the rise of the Vijayanagar dynasty. Prince Kampana is known from inscriptions tohave repaired the damages wrought by the Muslim incursions and restored worship in the temple. This accounts for fragmentary paintings of the Vijayanagar period too. The temple saw bad times again subsequently till it became a protected monument and came to be attended to. Thus the Panamalai temple painted fragment, mentioned earlier, would alone be the earlier, would alone be the ealiest Pallava painting extant as found so far.
The Vaikunthapermal temple in Kanchi built by Nandivarman Pallavamalla (AD 731-796) and dedicated to Vishnu is another Pallava structure of the larger variety facing west and built in sandstone with an admixture of granite in the top and bottom courses of its adhishthana. It has a square four-storeyed main vimana with all the talas except the topmost, containing the superposed garbha-gridha, to enshrine the three forms of Vishnu, standing (sthanaka), sitting (asana), and reclining (sayana). It is thus a forerunner of many such Vishnu temples that came later even till recent times, e;g; the Sundaravaradaperuma temple at Uttiramerur, the Chitrakuta at Madurai,and the Vishnu temple at mannarkovil, to mention only a few. The triple storey has been achieved by a system of three concentric walls forming three concentric quares, one inside the other with ambulatory passages in between in the sandhara mode. They are set on top of a bodly moulded adhishthana, the innermost wall raising, to the height of the three storeys, enclosing the three tiers of cells, the intermediate wall rising to the terrace level of the first storey. The aditala has thus its sanctum surrounded by two covered circumambulatory passages, the outer one functioning as such while the inner one provides access to the second tala. There is a flight of steps on the north and south, for ascent and descent, providing access to and exit from the second tala, terminating in an opening on the centre of the west outer wall. The open outer ambulatory of the scond tala is surrounded by the parapet on top of the outermost wall formed by a hara of kutas, salas and panjaras; the inner covered ambulatory lies at the heads of the two flights of steps from below. This hara is extended over the top of the pillared adha-mandapa in front of the aditala. The intermediate wall extending up to the top of the second tala and enclosing the closed ambulatory carries on top a similar hara forming the parapet edging for the open circumambulatory passage round the third-tier cella. The innermost wall reaching to the top of the third-tier cella has, likewise, a hara of kutasand salas. The kutas, salas and panjaras of each tier crown the correspondingly relieved bays and recesses of the walls. The fourth tala, which is a smaller square, is close on all sides and carries the octagonal griva and sikhara with a metal stupi ontop, and four lions originally (now replaced by garuda figures in stucco) at its four corners. The central bays of the aditala outer wall have small door-openings, while the lateral ones have devakoshthas with figure sculpture, the intermediate recesses having perforated windows. The bays and recesses of the upper tala outer walls have similar sculpture, all Vaishnavite. The lowermost storey and the ardha-mandapa in front are surrounded by an open narrow circuit at the level of the bases of the adhishthana. The whole is again surrounded by a pillared cloister running all round ona raised platform with vyala-based pillars on the edge facing the central edifice and a wall on the outer edge that carries on its top a sting of kutas and salas, at a level slightly lower than that of the aditala. This arrangement when viewed from outside would simulate a panchatala appearance, as in the case of the Shore temple described earlier. In addition to the numerous divine sculptures on the vimana and ardha-mandapa and contemporary inscriptions, the most interesting part of this temple would be a series of panelled sculptures narrating the history of the Pallavas from their legendary ancestors down to the time of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla, the builder of the temple-a unique feature rarely met with elsewhere. The other temples of this period to be found in Kanchi, though smaller in proportions, are interesting for their architecture and iconography. They are the Muktesvara, Mantangesvara, Airavatesvara, Valisvara, Iravantanesvara and Piravatanesvara temples, built mainly of sandstone with granite slabs forming the base and top of the adhishthana, and the upa-pitha platform below it in cases where it is added to raise the stature of the edifice. All of them are composite varieties of the square vimana with vaying numbers of talas, the upper storeys non-functional and closely investedby the hara over the prastara of the storey below, and with different plans in the griva sikhara part. The Iravatanesvara and Tripurantakesvara are dvitala, square through out, including the griva and sikhara, and hence are Nagara. The Matangesvara and Muktesvara temples which are tritala have likewise square talas, but carry circular griva and sikhara conforming to the Vesara. The Piravatanesvara and Valisvara are two- and three-storeyed respectively, their talas square, but the griva and sikhara octagonal, marking them Dravida. The superstructure of the Airavatesvara is lost. The Kailasanatha at Tiruppattur (Tiruchirapalli district) is a larger vimana in sandstone and is much like the Kailasanatha of Kanchi. It is of the late eighth century and is an example of the provincial variety of the Pallava vimana.
But soon after the middle of the long reign of Nandivarman II Pallava, in the later part of the eighth century, temples came to be built entirely of granite blocks, cut, moulded, carved and sculptured, as seen in some of the smaller temples and in the granite adhishthanas of the large brick temples of Vaikunthaperumaland Sundaravaradaperumal at Uttiramerur (Chingelput district) of the time of his successor, Dantivarman. In the former, the niches were meant to contain stucco figures and in the latte, slab reliefs. The extant three-storeyed brick structure of Sundaravaradaperumal over its stone adhishthana is unique again in having all the three storeys functional with the cellas dedicated to the standing, seated and reclining forms of Vishnu, while the abutting smaller shrines on the three sides of its two lower talas south, west and north, contain the six other principal forms of Vishnu-Satya, Achyuta, Anirudha, Naranarayana, Narasimha, and Varsha-thus incorporating the nine forms or navamurtis in accodance with the Vaikhanasa Agama. These two temples and the large and fine renovated brick temple at Tiruvadigai (South Arcot district) on a stone adhishthana corroborate the fact that brick and timber continued to remain in use in spite of the advent of stone, and skills in their use in large constructions were fostered and maintained. The Virattanesvara temple at Tiruttani (Chingleput district) affords a very good example of a single-storeyed vimana square inits adhishthana and aditala that carries an apsidal griva sikhara superstructure. It was built of hard brick stone in the ninth century in the time of Pallava Aparajitavarman, one of the last rulers of the dynasty. It contains some good bas-reliefs in its wall niches which exemplify the definite polarization of the deities in the vimana and ardha-mandapa devaoshthas, namely, Ganesa and Durga respectively, in the southern and northern outer wall niches of the ardha-mandapa and Dakshinamurti, Vishnu and Brahma respectively, in the south, west and nort outer wall niches of the aditala wall. The introduction of a projected gargoyle-like water-outlet, the pranala, from the northern side of the garbha-gridha floor to drainoff the abhisheka water, till now not noticed in earlier temples, is another noteworthy feature. The pranala becomes an invariable component of all the temples built later.
The credit of constructing fine vimanas of hardstone, though small, and perfecting the same would, however, go to the contemporary Pandyas of the south who, following their rock-cut temples and the single carved-out monolithic vimana-the Vettuvankovil at Kalugumalai (AD 800), built a series of a small karralis, or all-stone temples, in the southern districts. The contemporary Western Gangas of the Talkad in the south Mysore area, and the Muttaraiyar, the Irukkuvel and other chiefs on either bank of the Kaveri, is the dividing border line between the Pallava and Pandya empire, followed by the ealy Cholas (who till then in hibernation had risen at the close of the ninth century to imperial power with their capital at Thanjavur, and soon spread over the Pallava and Pandya territories) have likewise left a number of fine temples in granite dating before AD 1000.
The series of small and elegant all-stone temples at kaliyapatti, Tiruppur, Visalur and Panangudi (Pudukkottai district) have square ekataka vimanas with simple moulded adhishthanas, less than 2 metre square at the base, carrying on top over the cella a sqare griva and sikhara. In addition to the vimana koshtha devatas in the prescribed order as mentioned above, in the context of the Tiruttani Virattanesvara, they have eight smaller sub-shrines, the ashta parivara, dedicated to the ancillary deities located on the corners and sides and inside the prakara wall that surrounds the nuclear vimana and its axial adjuncts. While all therest of the eight sub-shrines are square on plan like the main vimana, the one on the middle of the south side, dedicated to the Saptamatrikas, is rendered oblong with an appropriate sala sikhara as exemplified in the typical temple complex of the Sundaresvara at Tirukkattalai (Pudukkottai district). Such oblong or elliptical shrines of the linear pattern are prescribed for and found employed in cases where the deity is reclining, or where more than one deity (as the Saptamatrikas) is installed in a row, or a deity is with consorts (like Sri and Bhu devis for Vishnu), and attendants are enshrined in the sanctum. The oblong form with sala sikhara became the invariable rule, according to prescription and practice, for all the devi shrines deviate in form, as for example, the apsidal or gaja-prishta (elephant back) sub-shrine for Gajanana or Ganesa found in the Sundaresvara temple at Nangavaram (Tiruchirapalli district). The cult of Chandesa as the mulabhritya, or chief seneschal of a Siva temple, which had its emergence even in the time of Rajasimha Pallava as seen in his Kailasanatha at Kanchi, had now become crystallized and one of the ashta parivara sub-shrines on the north was assigned to him till about AD 1000. Subsequently in the temples of the imperial Chola period he, like Nandi of earlier times and the other equal associate of Siva, Chandesa came to have a more honoured place by coming into closer proximity with the main vimana just to the north of the pranala which had by now emerged on the northern side of the main vimana. These form the peculiar features of the southern temples, particularly of th temples of Tamil Nadu.
The Balasubrahmanya temple at kannanur and the Siva temple at Viralur (both in Pudukkottai district) are examples of the kind where the griva and sikhara are circular in section, mounted over the square body of theekatala vimana. The former carries on the four corners of its aditala four elephant figures as symbols for Subrahmanya kartikeya, instead of the later and usual peacock forms.
The dvitala Talinatha temple at Tiruppattur (Ramanathapuram district) and the similar Siva temple inTiruvalisvaram (Tirunelveli district) are slightly larger examples. The former has four karnakuta miniature shrines at the corners of the topmost tala in place of the Nandis. The latter is noted for its fine sculptures and cameos in relief on its walls and superstructure, amongst which is to be found the well-known ananda-tandava of Siva Nataraja, perhaps the earliest depiction of this characteristically crystallized and sublimated concept of Tamil Nadu and its unique contribution to Indian and world art. The celebrated icon of Nataraja in the characteristic ananda-tandava pose, depicting, esoterically, the pancha kritya of Siva of Tamilian Saiva Siddhanta, as ably described and interpreted by Coomaraswamy, makes its advent late in the ninth century. The Saiva saint, Manikkavachakar is the first among the Nayanmars to refer to this from and aspect of Siva’s dance and the small Tiruvalisvaram panel (c.AD 890) is perhaps the first to capture the imagery in stone. The concept was perhaps first revealed in copper or bronze, in the casting of which the Tamilian artisan had achieved skill and excellence, primarily to serve as a processional deity that came to be translated into stone subsequently. Such early stone representations are to be met with again, in miniature mostly, as the crest figure in a niche torana arch in the early Chola temple in Punjai (Thanjavur district) of the time of Parantaka I (Accn. AD 907), and on a pillar in the temple in Turaijur (Tiruchirapalli district) of about AD 940. The other early miniatures are found in theKoranganatha temple, Srinivasanallur in the same district, and also ina niche torana in the Tirumiyachur temple (Thanjavur district). It occurs as a niche sculpture in stone, perhaps for the first time, in the devakoshtha of the south wall of the ardha-mandapa in the temple at Konerirajapuram (Thanjavur district) and becomes a usual featuire in that position in the other early Chola temples.
The Vijayalaya Cholisvaram in Narttamalai (Pudukkottai district), though so called after the founder of the Chola line of Thanjavur, is an interesting and fine Muttaraiyar example. The sandhara aditala of this tritala structure is square on plan externally with an almost equal-sized close mandapa in front, while it’s inner wall enclosing the sanctum is circular, leaving an intervening passage all round. The second tala rising over the inner circular wall is square, while the third, as also the griva and sikhara above, is circular in section. The aditala hara, extended over the top of the front mandapa, also shows a series of dance sculptures. But for these and the dvarapalas at the mandapa entrance, the sculptures on the four faces at the top and the cylindrical linga with circular pitha in the sanctum, there ae not many sculptures. The west-facing complex is surrounded by the ashta parivara and a prakara with a small gopura entrance on the east located near the north-east corner at the top of a slopy ascent on the rock over which the temple is built.
The Muvarkovil at Kodumbalur (Tiruchirapalli district) is of Irukkuvel origin and has three equal-sized dvitala vimanas square from base to sikhara with their ardha-mandapa standing in a north-south row facing west, with a common large and oblong maha-mandapa infront. Two of these are complete and the third is represented by its extant basement only. The whole was surrounded by sixteen sub-shrines and a prakara, with the small entrance gopuram on the west. This temple is another important landmark in the line of the great south Indian temples. It is built of fine-grained and neatly-dressed granite, and is noted for its exquisite sculptures-particularly Vinadhara, Dakshinamurti, Kalari Siva, and some feminine forms.
Likewise, the early Chola temples of Koranganatha at Srinivasanallur (Tiruchirapalli district), Nagesvaram in Kumbhakonam, Naltunai Isvara at Punjai and Brahmapurisvara in Pullamangai are other early all-stone temples famous for their sculpture of quality and grace including what appear to be portrait sculptures of men and women. Hundreds of such stone temples were being built in Tamil Nadu in the centuries before and after AD 1000, in replacement of earlir brick-and-timber structures, and in places hallowed by the memory of the Saiva and Vaishnava saints-the Nayanmars and the Alvars.
Similar activity, though on a lesser scale, is to be found in the southern Mysore country, where the Western Gangas of Talkad have left a few contemporary hardstone temples. The earliest would be the twin ekatala vimanas of a small size forming an adjunct to the later Jain temple on the Chandragiri hill in Sarvana Belagola (Hassan district). But the more impressive Jain temple on the same hill would be the Chamundaraya basti (c. 982-985), with a three-storeyed east-facing vimana and closed mandapa and open porch in front. Its two square lower talas of the superposed sanctum type, with a double-walled square sandhara aditala leaving a passage in between the walls are functional and have tirthankara forms enshrined in their sanctums. The third tala, also square, is non-functional, and the griva and sikhara are octagonal. The hara of the aditala over the top of the outer wall, consisting of kuta, sala and panjara elements, is continued over the top edges of the front mandapas. The second storey has thus an open ambulatory round it. The hara contains a series of fine sculptures. But the most interesting monument inSravana Belagola is the hypaethral temple of the Gommatesvara colossus, 17.5 metres high, carved in the roundout of a standing tor on top of the Indragiri hill. This was the work of Chavundaraya, the minister of Ganga Rachamalla (974-984). Being a free-standing image of find proportions and polished granite, it is even more interesting than the colossus of Ramses II at Abu Simbel in Egypt. The base of the colossus is surrounded by a malika of granite, built by Gangaraya, the minister of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana (1110-1152), and the mandapa abutting the lower part of the colossus from behind was built by another minister, Baladeva, in the twelfth century.
The Ganesa temple at Kambadahalli near Sravana Belagola, also Jain, is interesting on account of the fact that is three principal vimanas of moderate dimensions and built wholly of granite open into the three-sides of a common mandapa, the fourth side of which on the north affords the common outerentrance-a grouping called trikuta. The three square-based vimanas have square, octagonal and circular griva sikharas respectively, denoting the Nagara-Dravida-Vesara types as described in the Slipa texts. To this complex have been added two more lateral vimanas in front of the common mandapa of the trikuta nucleus. The whole is surrounded by a prakara with a small gopura entrance on the north. This complex called Panchakuta basti (Jain temple) in Kambadahalli (Hassan district), besides being a unique combination of units illustrating the ternary classification of the southern vimanas asNagara, Dravida and Versa,is interesting in its other aspects too. Particularly may be mentioned the variety of niche toranas framing the devakoshthas, that depict the different forms of toranas described in the texts and inscriptions, such as the patra torana, chitra torana, makara torana, vidyadhara torana, etc. This temple complex in thus exemplifying the various features of the vimana form as enumerated and codified in the Slipa and Agama texts of the period can be said to be a perfect text-book illustration or specimen to be studied comparison with the texts.
The granite temples of Nandi (Kolar district), the capital of the Banas, are of Ganga-Nolamba extraction. The small and earlier Yoganandisvara on top of the hill is not architecturally impressive, while the larger twin temples of Bhoganandisvara and Arunachalesvara, both of the square type, at the foot of hill area. This nuclear twin is enlarged with the addition of later axial mandapas and peripheral structures into a complex with prakara and gopura on the east. The Bhoganandisvara, earlier of the two is evidently a renovation of a pre-existing structure, and is noted for the fineness of its structure and beauty of its sculptures. The Arunachalesvara would appear to be almost a later copy of the Bhoganandisvara. The ruined softstone-built temples at Hemavati of (Anantapur district), noted for their fine sculptures, are examples of pure Nolamba architecture and art.
